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Untouchability: Its Forms, Implications, Government Measures, and a Way Forward

Relevance : Sociology Paper 2: Caste System- Untouchability- forms and perspectives.

Untouchability is a social practice that places certain groups, particularly Dalits, at the lowest rung of India’s caste hierarchy. Rooted in the notions of ritual purity and pollution, it manifests as systematic exclusion, oppression, and denial of basic rights. Despite constitutional abolition under Article 17, untouchability continues in various forms, ranging from social exclusion to economic deprivation and physical violence. Recent incidents, such as the assault on a Scheduled Caste engineer in Ballia, Uttar Pradesh, highlight that caste prejudice persists and shapes both social interactions and economic opportunities.

Sociologically, untouchability can be studied through multiple lenses: as a cultural norm (ritual-based), as a structural mechanism to maintain inequality, and as a source of social conflict. Understanding its persistence is critical for designing interventions that promote equality and social justice.

Thinkers’ Views on Untouchability

B.R. Ambedkar

- Defined untouchability as “the badge of social inferiority imposed by dominant castes to control and oppress Dalits.”
- He emphasized that untouchability is not merely ritualistic but also political and economic, used to deny Dalits access to resources, employment, and power.

G.S. Ghurye

- Viewed untouchability as “a practice by which a section of people is segregated and considered ritually impure, restricting their social and occupational mobility.”
- He highlighted the cultural and ritualistic dimensions, showing how religious justifications reinforced social exclusion.

M.N. Srinivas

- Introduced the concept of dominant caste and emphasized that untouchability functions as a structural mechanism maintaining social distance.
- Showed that social hierarchy is maintained not just through laws but through everyday practices and social interactions.

Andre Beteille

- Considered untouchability as a form of social inequality, linking it to patterns of economic deprivation and generational disadvantage.
- Highlighted how caste and class intersect to reproduce social stratification.

Louis Dumont

- From a structural-functional perspective, he saw untouchability as embedded in the hierarchical caste system, where ritual purity defines social ranking.
- Emphasized that ideology often justifies social inequality, masking exploitation under the guise of tradition.

Forms of Untouchability

Social Exclusion

Dalits are historically barred from temples, schools, public wells, and community events.
Functionalist View: Ritual rules were thought to maintain social cohesion by clearly demarcating boundaries between groups.
Conflict Perspective (Ambedkar): Exclusion is a tool of oppression, reinforcing power dynamics and limiting upward mobility.
Example: Many villages in India still report segregated water sources and temple entry restrictions for Dalits.

Economic Discrimination

Dalits often perform menial or low-paying jobs considered “impure,” such as sanitation work, leatherwork, or manual scavenging.
Marxist Perspective: This is an example of class exploitation intertwined with caste, ensuring the dominant groups retain economic control.
Weberian Analysis: Caste status restricts access to land, resources, and opportunities, perpetuating socio-economic inequality.

Political Marginalization

Despite constitutional reservations, Dalits frequently face intimidation, limiting their participation in local governance.
Conflict Theory: Dominant castes maintain political control, preventing marginalized groups from influencing policy and resource allocation.
Example: Dalit representatives in Panchayati Raj institutions are sometimes sidelined from decision-making.

Cultural Suppression

Exclusion from festivals, rituals, and traditional arts erodes identity and reinforces social inferiority.
Symbolic Interactionism: Cultural symbols and rituals communicate social status; denial of participation reinforces notions of impurity.
Example: Dalit art forms like folk songs or dances were historically marginalized or appropriated by dominant castes.

Violence and Harassment

Physical assaults, verbal abuse, and intimidation maintain caste hierarchy.
Conflict Lens: Violence functions as a mechanism to enforce social subordination.
Example: Recent reports in UP, Bihar, and Rajasthan show caste-based violence during disputes over land, education, or temple entry.

Implications of Untouchability

Socio-Economic Impact

- Exclusion from education and formal employment perpetuates poverty.
- Beteille & Marxist Lens: Untouchability reproduces structural inequality across generations, preventing upward social mobility.
- Example: Dalits historically underrepresented in professional and managerial occupations.

Psychological Impact

- Experiencing discrimination leads to low self-esteem, alienation, and stress.
- Symbolic Interactionism: Social interactions communicate inferiority, shaping self-perception and identity.
- Example: Dalit children in segregated schools internalize a sense of social inferiority.

Impact on Social Cohesion

- Social tension, resentment, and inter-caste conflicts arise due to inequality.
- Conflict Theory: Social stratification generates friction, undermining overall social harmony.
- Example: Violence during caste disputes over land or political representation disrupts community life.

Changing Forms of Untouchability

Traditional Forms

Ritualistic Exclusion: Dalits were barred from temples, village councils, and religious ceremonies.
Segregation in Daily Life: Denial of access to common wells, schools, roads, or seating arrangements in public spaces.
Occupational Segregation: Restricted to “unclean” or menial jobs like manual scavenging, leatherwork, or cleaning.
Social Stigma: Denied social interactions such as marriage, dining, or friendship with upper castes.

Modern/Contemporary Forms

Educational Discrimination: Despite laws, Dalits face harassment, bias, and exclusion in schools, colleges, and coaching centers.
Workplace Discrimination: In private and public sectors, subtle bias, denial of promotions, or wage discrimination persists.
Residential Segregation: Even in urban areas, Dalits may be restricted to specific neighborhoods or informal settlements.
Digital and Social Media Exclusion: Online harassment, caste-based trolling, and discriminatory behavior in digital spaces are emerging forms of untouchability.
Political and Institutional Marginalization: Representation exists on paper, but Dalits often face intimidation or lack of real decision-making power in governance.

Sociological Analysis of Changing Forms

Symbolic Interactionism: Modern untouchability often manifests in micro-level interactions, where subtle cues, language, and social behavior communicate inferiority.
Conflict Perspective: Structural inequalities persist in education, employment, and politics, reinforcing dominance of upper castes.
Functionalist Lens: Even though laws aim to restore balance, latent social norms and prejudices perpetuate subtle forms of exclusion.

Example

Urban Dalit students in elite institutions may face social isolation or discriminatory groupings in hostels and classrooms.
In corporate spaces, Dalit employees sometimes experience subtle bias in promotions, project allocation, or workplace culture.

Government Measures

Constitutional Provisions
- Article 17: Abolishes untouchability.
- Articles 15 & 46: Promote affirmative action in education, employment, and social protection.
- Structural Functionalist View: Legal measures attempt to restore social balance and promote inclusion.
Legislative Framework
- SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Criminalizes caste-based discrimination and violence.
- Conflict Lens: Provides marginalized groups a mechanism to challenge entrenched power structures.
Educational and Economic Initiatives
- Scholarships, reserved seats in education, and skill development programs empower Dalits.
- Marxist Perspective: Redistribution of resources challenges historical exploitation and structural inequality.
Awareness Campaigns
- Promote equality, reporting of atrocities, and social sensitization.

- Symbolic Interactionism: Changing cultural narratives can reshape daily interactions and reduce prejudice.

Way Forward

Education and Sensitization
- Incorporate caste awareness in schools and community programs.
- Conflict Theory: Education equips marginalized groups to challenge structural inequalities.
Strict Enforcement of Laws
- Ensure timely investigation, prosecution, and protection for victims.
- Functionalist Lens: Reinforces social order and safeguards vulnerable groups.
Economic Empowerment
- Expand microfinance, entrepreneurship, and employment opportunities.
- Marxist Lens: Reduces dependence on dominant castes, challenging historical hierarchies.
Community Engagement
- Promote inter-caste dialogue, inclusive cultural participation, and collaborative projects.
- Symbolic Interactionism: Positive interactions reshape social meanings and reduce stigma.
Media and Advocacy
- Highlight Dalit achievements and caste-based injustices.
- Conflict Perspective: Media challenges dominant narratives and amplifies marginalized voices.

Conclusion

Untouchability is a multi-dimensional social phenomenon shaped by caste, culture, economy, and politics. Thinkers like Ambedkar, Ghurye, Srinivas, Beteille, and Dumont provide insight into its structural, ritualistic, and interactional aspects. Addressing untouchability requires legal enforcement, educational reform, economic empowerment, social sensitization, and cultural transformation. A sociological approach allows policymakers, scholars, and society to design holistic strategies that tackle both systemic oppression and everyday discrimination, paving the way toward an inclusive and equitable society.

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Untouchability: Its Forms, Implications, Government Measures, and a Way Forward