Scientific method, and Critique
Karl Pearson states that there is no shortcut to truth; the only way to gain knowledge about the universe is through the scientific method.
Science is defined by its method, not by its subject matter.
The scientific method is a systematic and objective approach used to study a problem with the aim of deriving general principles.
It provides a logical, rational, efficient, and effective way of collecting, organising, and interpreting facts.
It involves a sequence of steps that researchers follow while conducting any study or investigation.
The scientific method involves formulating and testing theories about the world using empirical evidence.
It is characterised by systematic observation of the empirical world and strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical.
The scientific method is an essential tool for research across disciplines.
It includes identifying a problem, gathering relevant data, forming a hypothesis, and finding a testable explanation for that hypothesis.
Key features of the method include systematic observation, measurement, experimentation, hypothesis formulation, testing, and modification of the hypothesis when required.
Thinker's view
Robert Burns defines research as “a systematic investigation aimed at finding solutions to a problem,” emphasizing that such inquiry is guided by previously gathered information.
George A. Lundberg states that social scientists believe their problems can be addressed only through careful and systematic observation, verification, classification, and interpretation of social phenomena. This rigorous approach is what we call the scientific method.
N. Thouless describes the scientific method as a set of techniques—varying across different sciences but sharing a common structure—designed to discover general laws.
Steps of the Scientific Method with Examples
Selecting a Topic: Sociologists begin by choosing a social issue or phenomenon to study, such as inequality, crime, or education.
Example: A researcher may decide to examine how social media affects mental health.Defining the Problem: The broad topic is narrowed down to a specific research problem.
Example: The sociologist may define the issue as investigating whether excessive social media use increases anxiety among teenagers.Reviewing the Literature: The researcher studies existing theories and previous findings to identify what has already been explored and where gaps remain.
Example: They may find that while many studies examine adults, research on social media’s impact on teenagers is limited.Formulating a Hypothesis: A testable statement predicting a relationship between variables is created.
Example: The hypothesis might state: “More time spent on social media is associated with higher anxiety levels in teenagers.”Choosing a Research Method: The sociologist selects an appropriate method such as surveys, experiments, or observations to test the hypothesis.
Example: The researcher chooses a survey to collect data from high school students about their social media use and anxiety.Collecting the Data: Data is gathered systematically using the chosen method, ensuring it is empirical and reliable.
Example: Surveys are distributed to a representative group of students from different schools to collect quantitative information.Analyzing the Results: The data is examined—often statistically—to see whether it supports the hypothesis.
Example: Analysis reveals a strong correlation between heavy social media use and higher anxiety among teenagers.Sharing the Results: The findings are published or presented to contribute to sociological knowledge.
Example: The study is published in a journal, helping expand research on social media and mental health.
How the Scientific Method Systematizes Sociology ?
The application of the scientific method ensures that sociology is grounded not in assumptions or opinions but in systematically tested theories and empirical evidence. By following organized and methodical steps, sociologists are able to build a coherent and dependable body of knowledge that can be applied across different social contexts.
Example: Emile Durkheim’s study of suicide is a landmark illustration of this approach. Using empirical data and statistical techniques, Durkheim showed how levels of social integration and regulation affect suicide rates, proving that even intensely personal actions can have underlying social causes. His systematic methodology helped establish sociology as a scientific and structured discipline.
Overall, the scientific method enables sociological research to be rigorous, verifiable, and orderly, giving the field credibility and a well-defined structure.
Characteristics of Scientific Method
Verifiable Evidence: Scientific knowledge is based on factual observations that can be seen, checked, and confirmed by other observers.
Accuracy: It refers to describing facts exactly as they are, without exaggeration or unfounded conclusions, ensuring statements reflect the truth.
Systematic Observation: Scientific inquiry relies on carefully planned and structured observations rather than random or casual noticing, although initial ideas may arise from accidental observations.
Objective Approach: Science aims to rely on facts and the actual state of the world rather than personal beliefs or desires. Researchers try to minimize their biases when making observations.
Precision: Scientific work requires exactness, such as providing specific numbers or measurements instead of vague expressions. For example, stating “I interviewed 493 people” instead of “many people.”
Logical: Logic guides scientific reasoning. While distinct from science itself, logical thinking underpins scientific conclusions and helps determine whether a proposition is acceptable.
Training Investigators: Proper training equips researchers with the skills to identify relevant information, interpret it correctly, and avoid inaccurate data collection.
Predictive: Science aims to link present knowledge with future outcomes. The usefulness of a theory lies in its ability to accurately predict events or behaviours.
According to Martindale and Monachies
“Science is also a way of thinking, developed in response to problems, but what sets it apart from other forms of thought is its distinctive method. Key features of the scientific approach include:
a strong emphasis on careful observation,
efforts to test ideas through practical application,
the use of experiments and model situations to evaluate hypotheses,
the creation of new tools that allow for more precise observation and accurate measurement, and
the strict exclusion of personal judgments, focusing instead on understanding how things actually occur rather than why they occur or how they ought to be.”
According to Martindale and Monachies
“Science is also a way of thinking, developed in response to problems, but what sets it apart from other forms of thought is its distinctive method. Key features of the scientific approach include:
a strong emphasis on careful observation,
efforts to test ideas through practical application,
the use of experiments and model situations to evaluate hypotheses,
the creation of new tools that allow for more precise observation and accurate measurement, and
the strict exclusion of personal judgments, focusing instead on understanding how things actually occur rather than why they occur or how they ought to be.”
According to Henry Jhonson
Characteristics of Scientific Research
- It is empirical
- It is theoretical
- It is cumulative
- It is non – ethical
Important Uses of Scientific Research in Sociology
Improves Decision-Making: Scientific research offers evidence-based insights that help individuals, institutions, and governments make informed choices about social issues, policies, and interventions.
Example: A government may use sociological studies on poverty to design targeted welfare schemes for vulnerable groups.Reduces Uncertainty: By gathering and analyzing data systematically, sociological research clarifies complex social phenomena and lowers uncertainty.
Example: Studies on urban crime patterns can help predict high-risk areas, allowing police to allocate resources more effectively.Enables New Strategies: Research findings provide practical solutions that enable organizations and governments to adopt innovative strategies to address emerging social challenges.
Example: Research on remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic helped companies shift to more flexible work models.Aids Future Planning: Sociological research reveals long-term trends that assist policymakers and institutions in preparing for future societal developments.
Example: Demographic projections of aging populations help governments anticipate healthcare and pension needs.Identifies Trends: Scientific research tracks social patterns over time, helping societies understand and respond to ongoing transformations.
Example: Studies on marriage and family structures can highlight changes in social values, guiding updates to family-related laws.
Limitations of Scientific Research in Sociology
Social scientists attempted to use natural science methods to study human behaviour and society, but soon realised that social reality is fundamentally different and cannot be fully examined using the classical scientific method without adjustments.
Complexity of Social Data: No two individuals are identical, and even the same person behaves differently in different situations. This makes it difficult to generalize social phenomena in terms of universal cause-and-effect relationships.
Unpredictability of Social Phenomena: Because social behaviour is highly complex, predicting human actions and formulating universally valid laws is challenging—unlike the strong predictability found in physical or chemical sciences.
Multiple Causes and Overlapping Effects: Social events are influenced by numerous factors, and it is often difficult to clearly separate cause from effect in social data.
Challenges in Measurement and Quantification: The vast diversity of social categories makes it hard to quantify and measure them accurately.
Criticism of Scientific Method
Historian Jacques Barzun described science as “a faith as fanatical as any in history” and cautioned against using scientific thinking in ways that dismiss deeper questions of meaning essential to human life.
Science and its methods have been criticized on several grounds, including:
Claim of Objectivity: Critics argue that science’s assertion of being fully objective is unrealistic.
Popper’s Critique: Karl Popper rejected the idea of fixed evidence or a singular scientific method. He argued that all knowledge—whether in science, mathematics, or even biological evolution—advances through the universal process of trial and error.
Kuhn’s Perspective: Thomas Kuhn argued that scientists operate within preconceived paradigms that shape and influence their observations and measurements.
Manipulation of Nature and Individuals: Science has been criticized for altering nature and exerting control over people.
Consumerism and New Problems: Science and technology are accused of promoting consumerism and generating new challenges that threaten human well-being and even survival.
Weber’s View: Max Weber argued that scientific methodology, as part of the broader process of rationalization, is itself irrational because it traps individuals in rigid systems of thought.
Schumacher’s Critique: Economist E.F. Schumacher claimed that the 17th-century scientific revolution shifted science away from understanding nature toward manipulating it—and by extension manipulating human beings.
Feyerabend’s Argument: J.F. Feyerabend maintained that scientific method limits researchers’ freedom and that sociological inquiry should liberate rather than constrain them.
Adorno’s View: Theodor Adorno suggested that science stifles human creativity and leads to intellectual suffocation.
Previous Year Questions
- Describe the basic postulates of scientific method. How far are these followed in sociological research (2016
- Is Sociology a value- free science? Discuss (2020)
Important Keywords
Science, Systematic Knowledge, Objective Methods, Karl Pearson, Robert Burns, George A. Lundberg, Research Method or Methodology, Karl Popper, E.F. Schumacher, Decision-Making, Non – Ethical, Social Data and Systematic Observation.
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