Survey as a Quantitative Method
In sociological research, quantitative methods are essential for studying social phenomena in a systematic, objective, and measurable manner. Among these, the survey method occupies a central position as it enables researchers to collect standardized data from large populations and analyse patterns, trends, and relationships. Surveys are extensively used in sociology, economics, political science, and public policy for evidence-based decision-making and social planning.
Survey as a Quantitative Method
A survey is a method of gathering information from a population or a representative sample on a specific subject. It seeks to provide a broad overview of social realities rather than an in-depth account of individual experiences.
According to Sukamolson, survey research focuses on sampling techniques, questionnaire design, and questionnaire administration to collect data and analyse group behaviour. For example, a survey on youth unemployment may use structured questionnaires administered to selected respondents across regions.
The term “survey” implies an attempt to obtain a comprehensive picture of a social phenomenon. Le Play, known for his family budget studies, is regarded as the father of the modern social survey.
Modes of Survey Administration
Surveys can be conducted through multiple modes depending on feasibility and population characteristics:
- Face-to-face interviews – Used in large government surveys such as the National Family Health Survey (NFHS).
- Telephonic surveys – Common in opinion polls and market research.
- Online surveys – Widely used in studies on digital literacy and consumer behaviour.
- Oral questioning – Suitable in areas with low literacy, such as rural development surveys.
Basic Tenets of Survey (Kraemer)
According to Kraemer, surveys rest on three core principles:
- Quantitative description of selected aspects of a population and relationships among variables
Example: Relationship between education and income levels. - Direct data collection from people
Example: Household surveys collecting data on health and sanitation. - Use of a representative sample to generalise findings
Example: Exit polls predicting electoral outcomes.
- Quantitative description of selected aspects of a population and relationships among variables
Principles of Sampling (with Examples)
- Representation of sub-groups: All significant sections of the population (gender, caste, class, region) must be included.
Example: Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) ensuring inclusion of SCs, STs, OBCs, and others. - Randomization: Selection of respondents should be purely by chance to eliminate bias.
Example: Random selection of households in census enumeration blocks.
- Representation of sub-groups: All significant sections of the population (gender, caste, class, region) must be included.
Types of Surveys
- Based on Objectivity
- Descriptive Surveys – Describe characteristics of a population.
Example: Census of India reporting literacy rates and sex ratio. - Analytical Surveys – Examine relationships between variables.
Example: Studies analysing the link between poverty and school dropout rates.
- Descriptive Surveys – Describe characteristics of a population.
- Based on Sampling Technique
- Random Sampling – Equal chance of selection.
- Stratified Sampling – Population divided into strata (e.g., caste or income groups).
- Cluster Sampling – Selection of groups like villages or schools.
- Random Sampling – Equal chance of selection.
- Based on Purpose (Ackroyd and Hughes)
- Factual Surveys – Collect objective information.
Example: Population census reports. - Attitude Surveys – Study opinions and perceptions.
Example: Voter surveys during elections. - Explanatory Surveys – Test theories and hypotheses.
Example: Research on proletarianisation of white-collar workers.
- Factual Surveys – Collect objective information.
Advantages of the Survey Method
- Generalisation to Large Populations: One of the greatest strengths of the survey method is its ability to generalise findings from a sample to the entire population. When a scientifically selected representative sample is used, conclusions drawn can reflect broader social patterns.
Example: Data from the Census of India or NSSO surveys are used to generalise trends in literacy, employment, and poverty across the country. - Cost-effective and Time-efficient: Compared to in-depth qualitative methods like ethnography or case studies, surveys are relatively economical and faster, especially when dealing with large populations. Standardised questionnaires and digital tools further reduce costs.
Example: Online surveys used in evaluating digital governance initiatives significantly reduce fieldwork expenses. - Reliable and Comparable Data: Surveys rely on standardised questions, ensuring uniformity in data collection. This enhances reliability and allows comparison across regions, time periods, and social groups.
Example: Repeated rounds of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) enable comparison of health indicators over decades. - Versatility Across Disciplines: The survey method is highly versatile and widely used in sociology, economics, political science, psychology, public health, and management studies. It can study diverse issues such as voting behaviour, consumer preferences, health outcomes, and educational attainment.
Example: Voter attitude surveys in political science and market surveys in economics. - Useful for Policy Formulation and Evaluation: Surveys provide empirical evidence essential for policy planning, implementation, and evaluation. Governments depend on survey data to assess the effectiveness of welfare schemes and development programmes.
Example: Surveys assessing MGNREGA help evaluate employment generation, wage payments, and rural livelihoods.
- Generalisation to Large Populations: One of the greatest strengths of the survey method is its ability to generalise findings from a sample to the entire population. When a scientifically selected representative sample is used, conclusions drawn can reflect broader social patterns.
Disadvantages of the Survey Method
- Superficial Nature of Findings
Surveys often provide a broad but shallow understanding of social phenomena. They may fail to capture the complexity of social life, motivations, and meanings behind responses.
Example: A poverty survey may record income levels but overlook cultural deprivation or social exclusion. - Inflexibility of Research Design
Once the questionnaire is finalised and data collection begins, it becomes difficult to modify questions or explore unexpected findings. This makes surveys relatively rigid compared to qualitative methods.
Example: Emerging social issues during fieldwork cannot be easily incorporated into an already-designed questionnaire. - Limited Insight into Subjective Experiences
Surveys are weak in capturing emotions, values, perceptions, and lived experiences, as responses are constrained by pre-coded options.
Example: Experiences of domestic violence or mental health issues are often underreported or oversimplified in surveys.
- Superficial Nature of Findings
The survey method remains a cornerstone of quantitative research due to its capacity for large-scale data collection, standardisation, and generalisation. Although it cannot fully capture subjective meanings, its contribution to social research, governance, and policy planning is invaluable. When complemented with qualitative methods, surveys provide a balanced and comprehensive understanding of social reality.
Important Keywords
Survey Research, Quantitative Method, Sampling, Questionnaire, Randomization, Generalisation, Descriptive Survey, Attitude Survey, Explanatory Survey, Policy Research
Participant and Non-Participant Observation
Home / Participant and Non-Participant Observation Participant Observation Meaning and Nature of Participant Observation Participant observation is a qualitative research
Schedule as a Data Collection Tool in Sociology
Home / Schedule as a Data Collection Tool in Sociology In sociological research, the accuracy and reliability of data depend
Interview as a Data Collection Method in Sociology
Home / Interview as a Data Collection Method in Sociology In sociological research, understanding human behavior, attitudes, and social processes
Questionnaire as a Quantitative Method
Home / Questionnaire as a Quantitative Method In social science research, the questionnaire is one of the most widely used
Census as a Quantitative Method
Home / Census as a Quantitative Method The census is one of the most comprehensive quantitative tools used in social
Survey as a Quantitative Method
Home / Survey as a Quantitative Method In sociological research, quantitative methods are essential for studying social phenomena in a
Techniques of Data Collection in Sociology
Home / Techniques of Data Collection in Sociology Techniques of data collection constitute one of the most significant components of
Qualitative Research Method in Sociology
Home / Qualitative Research Method in Sociology Qualitative research refers to an approach to social research that focuses on non-quantitative
Quantitative Research Method in Sociology
Home / Quantitative Research Method in Sociology Quantitative research refers to a systematic investigation of social phenomena through the collection
Research Methodology in Sociology
Home / Research Methodology in Sociology Research refers to a systematic, objective, and critical investigation of social reality with the