November 17th Current Affairs
Table of Contents
Participant and Non-Participant Observation
Home / Participant and Non-Participant Observation Participant Observation Meaning and Nature of Participant Observation Participant observation is a qualitative research
Schedule as a Data Collection Tool in Sociology
Home / Schedule as a Data Collection Tool in Sociology In sociological research, the accuracy and reliability of data depend
Interview as a Data Collection Method in Sociology
Home / Interview as a Data Collection Method in Sociology In sociological research, understanding human behavior, attitudes, and social processes
Questionnaire as a Quantitative Method
Home / Questionnaire as a Quantitative Method In social science research, the questionnaire is one of the most widely used
Census as a Quantitative Method
Home / Census as a Quantitative Method The census is one of the most comprehensive quantitative tools used in social
Survey as a Quantitative Method
Home / Survey as a Quantitative Method In sociological research, quantitative methods are essential for studying social phenomena in a
Techniques of Data Collection in Sociology
Home / Techniques of Data Collection in Sociology Techniques of data collection constitute one of the most significant components of
Qualitative Research Method in Sociology
Home / Qualitative Research Method in Sociology Qualitative research refers to an approach to social research that focuses on non-quantitative
Quantitative Research Method in Sociology
Home / Quantitative Research Method in Sociology Quantitative research refers to a systematic investigation of social phenomena through the collection
Research Methodology in Sociology
Home / Research Methodology in Sociology Research refers to a systematic, objective, and critical investigation of social reality with the
Red Fort blast case: NIA calls Umar ‘suicide bomber’, nabs key plotter
Relevance to UPSC
GS Paper III: Internal Security, Science & Technology
- Use of vehicle-borne IEDs — technological dimension of modern terrorism.
- Terror module network: “white-collar” terror module spanning J&K, Haryana, UP.
- Forensics and intelligence: use of DNA, CCTV (1300+ cameras mapped Umar’s route) to reconstruct the attacker’s movements.
- Radicalisation and recruitment: possible training by Jaish-e-Mohammad, ideological motivation.
More About the News
- NIA has identified Umar Un Nabi as the “suicide bomber” driving the Hyundai i20 that exploded near Red Fort.
- A key conspirator, Amir Rashid Ali, has been arrested for allegedly facilitating the purchase and conversion of the car into an IED.
- Forensic tests confirmed Umar’s identity, and investigators are examining another vehicle belonging to him to trace the terror network.
National Investigation Agency (NIA)
About the NIA
- The NIA is India’s premier counter-terrorism investigation agency, responsible for probing offences that threaten India’s sovereignty, security and integrity.
- Its mandate covers crimes affecting:
- India’s relations with foreign states
- Atomic and nuclear facilities
- Arms, drug and FICN smuggling, and cross-border infiltration
- Offences under national laws implementing UN treaties, conventions and international agreements
- Established through the National Investigation Agency Act, 2008.
- Can investigate terror-related cases across states without requiring state approval, once authorised by the Home Ministry.
- Headquarters: New Delhi.
Origin
- Created after the 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks (2008) to strengthen national counter-terror capacities.
- Introduced through the NIA Bill, 2008 by then Home Minister P. Chidambaram.
- Officially formed on 31 December 2008, functioning since 2009.
- Has handled 447+ cases to date.
Jurisdiction
The NIA Act applies to:
- The entire territory of India
- Indian citizens abroad
- Government personnel posted anywhere
- Crimes committed on Indian ships/aircraft anywhere in the world
- Offences committed outside India against Indian citizens or Indian interests
Scheduled Offences
These are offences listed in the Schedule of the Act which the NIA investigates. They include:
- Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA)
- Explosive Substances Act
- Atomic Energy Act
- Anti-Hijacking Act
- SAARC Convention (Suppression of Terrorism) Act
- Maritime Navigation Safety Acts
- WMD Prohibition Act
- Relevant offences under IPC, Arms Act, IT Act, etc.
- NDPS Act
How NIA Takes Up Investigations
Referral Process
- State Government:
- Under Section 6, states may refer scheduled offences to the Centre for NIA investigation.
- The Centre reviews the case and may direct the NIA to take over.
- States must cooperate fully with NIA teams.
Central Government:
- Within India: Centre can suo motu transfer any scheduled case to NIA if national interest requires it.
- Outside India: Centre may order NIA to investigate offences committed abroad that fall under the Act.
2. Sanction for Prosecution
- For offences under UAPA and other scheduled laws, NIA must seek sanction from the Central Government.
- Sanction is based on the report of the Authority under Section 45(2) of UAPA.
3. Other Powers
- Has a dedicated LWE Cell to handle terror-financing linked to Naxal groups.
- While probing a scheduled offence, NIA may investigate connected offences committed by the accused.
- Chargesheets are filed before NIA Special Courts.
NIA Special Courts
Constitution
- Set up by the Central Government under Sections 11 and 22 of the Act.
- Judges appointed by the Centre on the recommendation of the Chief Justice of the High Court.
- Additional judges may be appointed if needed.
Jurisdiction
- Possess powers equal to a Sessions Court under the CrPC.
- Jurisdiction disputes are resolved by the Central Government, whose decision is final.
- The Supreme Court may transfer cases between Special Courts across states; High Courts may transfer them within the state.
Recent Amendments (2019)
1. Investigations Outside India:
NIA is now empowered to investigate offences committed abroad, subject to foreign domestic laws and treaty obligations.
2. Expanded Scope of Offences:
The amendment broadened the list to include:
Human trafficking
Counterfeit currency
Manufacture/sale of prohibited arms
Cyber-terrorism
Offences under the Explosive Substances Act, 1908
3. Special Courts Reforms:
Centre can designate existing Sessions Courts as NIA Special Courts after consulting the Chief Justice of the concerned High Court.
States may also designate Sessions Courts for trying scheduled offences.
Challenges Faced by NIA
1. Lack of Domain Expertise:
NIA officers are primarily drawn from the IPS, leading to a predominance of generalists and inadequate specialised expertise.
Establishing a dedicated cadre with specialised training in counter-terrorism, cyber forensics, and intelligence analysis is essential.
2. Difficulties in Cross-Border Investigations:
Investigations involving foreign jurisdictions become complicated due to sovereignty concerns, diplomatic sensitivities, and differing legal systems.
Example: The case involving the Khalistani group “Sikhs for Justice,” where geopolitical frictions and reciprocal accusations complicated the probe.
Interpol’s rejection of India’s Red Corner Notice request against Gurpatwant Singh Pannun illustrates limitations in international cooperation.
3. Federalism-Related Issues:
Several states (e.g., Kerala, Chhattisgarh) have challenged the NIA Act, arguing it infringes on “police” powers under the State List.
Instances like the FIR filed by West Bengal police against NIA officers highlight centre–state friction.
The agency must coordinate with states without overstepping jurisdiction.
4. Overlapping Jurisdiction with Other Agencies:
Functional confusion arises between NIA, CBI, and state police in areas like organised crime and cyber investigations.
Lack of seamless information-sharing leads to operational delays and accountability issues.
5. Need for Infrastructure and Technology Upgrades:
Terror networks increasingly use advanced tech, demanding sophisticated investigative tools.
Strengthening NIA’s capabilities through AI-based facial recognition, advanced surveillance technologies, drones, GPS tracking, and automatic number plate recognition systems is crucial.
Way Forward
- Create a Specialised NIA Cadre: Institutionalize recruitment and training pathways dedicated to counter-terrorism, cyber forensics, and international law.
- Strengthen International Cooperation Mechanisms: Build structured bilateral and multilateral frameworks to enable smoother evidence-sharing, extradition, and coordinated investigations.
- Clarify Legal and Jurisdictional Boundaries: Amend laws to clearly demarcate areas of investigation between NIA, CBI, and state police to avoid overlap and conflict.
- Enhance Centre–State Coordination Mechanisms: Create joint task forces, regular liaison meetings, and shared databases to balance federal principles with national security needs.
- Upgrade Technical Infrastructure: Invest in AI-driven analytics, digital forensics labs, modern surveillance tools, and continuous capacity-building for investigators.
Prelims MCQ
Q. The Stiglitz Commission established by the President of the United Nations General Assembly was in the international news. The commission was supposed to deal with: (PYQ 2010)
Mains Question
Q. The Indian government has recently strengthened the anti-terrorism laws by amending the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), 1967, and the NIA Act. Analyze the changes in the context of the prevailing security environment while discussing the scope and reasons for opposing the UAPA by human rights organizations. (PYQ 2019)
ISRO to triple spacecraft output, launch Chandrayaan-4 in 2028: Chairman
Relevance to UPSC
GS Paper III: Space Missions, Science & Technology
- Space technology: ISRO’s future missions (Chandrayaan-4, Gaganyaan) and how they contribute to national scientific capability.
- Cryogenic propulsion: Self-reliance in advanced rocket engine technology.
- Space infrastructure: Plans for a Bharatiya Antariksh Station (Indian space station) and its strategic / scientific importance.
- Application of satellite systems: Use of satellites for environment monitoring, disaster management, communication, and national security.
More About the News
- ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan outlines ambitious plans: Chandrayaan-4, Gaganyaan, and an Indian space station by 2035.
- He highlights India’s mastery of cryogenic engine technology, emphasizing self-reliance in space propulsion systems.
- He stresses the strategic and developmental value of space applications in communications, climate monitoring, and national security.
Chandrayaan 4
India’s Chandrayaan-4 mission marks a pivotal step in lunar exploration, aiming to return Moon samples while mastering advanced space technologies vital for future deep-space, scientific, and human-lunar missions.
Chandrayaan-4 Mission (Planned Around 2027)
- Agency: ISRO’s fourth lunar mission; India’s first lunar sample-return attempt.
- Objective: Collect lunar soil and sub-surface samples and bring them back to Earth.
- Proposed Landing Site: Near Statio Shiv Shakti, close to the lunar south pole.
Mission Architecture
Spacecraft Design:
Five modules launched via two LVM-3 rockets.
Launch 1: Ascender Module (AM) + Descender Module (DM).
Launch 2: Re-entry Module (RM) + Transfer Module (TM) + Propulsion Module (PM).
Both stacks will dock in elliptical Earth orbit to form the combined spacecraft.
Lunar Landing & Sample Collection:
Integrated stack performs Earth-bound maneuvers using PM.
In lunar orbit, DM + AM separate from TM + RM.
DM + AM executed a soft landing near the designated site.
Robotic arm collects 2–3 kg surface samples; drill extracts sub-surface samples.
Samples sealed for return.
Return & Earth Re-entry:
AM ascends back to lunar orbit and docks with TM + RM.
Samples transferred to RM.
TM + RM leave lunar orbit toward Earth.
RM detaches and performs ballistic re-entry, delivering sealed lunar samples to Earth.
Major Challenges
- Achieving reliable docking and undocking both in Earth orbit and lunar orbit.
- Ensuring thermal protection during high-speed atmospheric re-entry.
- Preventing contamination to preserve scientific integrity of lunar samples.
Significance
- Demonstrates India’s capability in docking, precision landing, orbital maneuvers, and sample-return technologies.
- Provides essential groundwork for India’s proposed crewed lunar mission by 2040.
- Advances India’s standing in global lunar exploration.
ISRO’s Previous Lunar Missions
1. Chandrayaan-1 (2008):
Launcher: PSLV.
Achievements:
Orbited Moon at 100 km; mapped lunar surface in multiple wavelengths.
Deployed Moon Impact Probe to study the exosphere.
Provided the first conclusive evidence of water molecules on the Moon.
2. Chandrayaan-2 (2019):
Launcher: LVM-3.
Components: Orbiter, Vikram Lander, Pragyan Rover.
Achievements:
Orbiter still operational; 7.5-year planned life.
Vikram’s soft landing attempt failed due to software anomaly.
Orbiter delivered extensive mineral and water-mapping data, completing 90–95% mission objectives.
3. Chandrayaan-3 (2023):
Launcher: LVM-3.
Components: Vikram Lander + Pragyan Rover.
Achievements:
Successful soft landing on 23 August 2023, ~600 km from lunar south pole.
Rover conducted in-situ experiments for one lunar day (14 Earth days).
India became the 4th nation to achieve a lunar landing (after USA, Russia, China)
Chandrayaan-4 will strengthen India’s technological autonomy, deepen lunar science, and lay the foundation for India’s planned human Moon landing, positioning the nation as a major contributor in future global space exploration efforts.
Prelims MCQ
Q. Consider the following statements: (PYQ 2016)
1. The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission.
2. It made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit Mars after USA.
3. It made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit Mars in its very first attempt.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Mains Question
Q. What is the main task of India’s third mood mission which could not be achieved in its earlier mission? List the countries that have achieved this task. Introduce the subsystems in the spacecraft launched and explain the role of the ‘Virtual Launch Control Centre’ at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre which contributed to the successful launch from Sriharikota. (PYQ 2023)
Venezuela keen to increase cooperation in critical minerals sector with India
Relevance to UPSC
GS Paper II: International Relations
- Bilateral relations: India–Venezuela cooperation beyond oil marks a diversification of strategic economic ties.
- Energy security & supply chain: Access to critical minerals helps India reduce dependence on traditional sources, important for long-term industrial policy.
- Institutional mechanism: Revival of the India-Venezuela Joint Committee Mechanism indicates governance and diplomatic institutionalisation.
GS Paper I: Distribution of key natural resources across the world
- Critical minerals: Cooperation in minerals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, rare-earths that are crucial for green energy, EVs, semiconductors.
- Mining & exploration technology: Potential for technology transfer, joint mining exploration, value-addition in mineral extraction.
- Strategic resource security: Securing critical raw materials strengthens India’s capacity for high-tech manufacturing and future infrastructure.
More About the News
- Venezuela expresses strong interest in cooperating with India on strategic critical minerals, moving beyond traditional oil ties.
- Commerce Minister Piyush Goyal calls to revive the India-Venezuela Joint Committee, last convened a decade ago.
- India’s ONGC operations in Venezuela could expand into mining and exploration to attract Indian investments in minerals.
Critical Minerals
Critical minerals are essential resources vital for clean energy technologies, electronics, and strategic industries, but their limited availability and concentrated global supply chains make them crucial for economic security and technological advancement.
Critical Minerals of India
Overview:
The Government of India released its first-ever report titled “Critical Minerals for India”, identifying 30 key minerals vital for strategic sectors.
These minerals are essential for:
Clean energy technologies: EVs, batteries, solar cells, wind turbines.
ICT and semiconductor manufacturing.
Advanced manufacturing & defence systems including magnets, ceramics, aerospace components.
The list was prepared based on recommendations of an Expert Committee under the Ministry of Mines.
How India Identifies Critical Minerals
Minerals are evaluated based on:
- Economic importance.
- Supply chain vulnerability.
- Strategic needs of emerging technologies.
- National security considerations.
List of India’s 30 Critical Minerals
Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, Phosphorous, Potash, REE, Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium, Selenium, Cadmium.
Institutional Recommendation
- Proposal to set up a Centre of Excellence for Critical Minerals (CECM) under the Ministry of Mines.
- The Centre will periodically update India’s critical minerals list.
Private Mining of Critical Minerals
Context:
- Government amended the MMDR Act, 1957 to allow private sector mining of six critical minerals:
Lithium, Titanium, Beryllium, Zirconium, Niobium, and Tantalum. - These minerals have been removed from the list of atomic minerals, enabling competitive auctions and private participation.
- Government amended the MMDR Act, 1957 to allow private sector mining of six critical minerals:
Descriptions of the Six Minerals Opened to Private Mining
1. Lithium:
Properties: Soft, silvery-white, lightest metal, highly reactive and flammable.
Occurrence: Found in pegmatites, oceans, and brines.
Global reserves:
Largest: Bolivia, Argentina, Chile (Lithium Triangle).
Top producers: Australia, Chile, China.
Uses: Lithium-ion batteries, EVs, alloys, ceramics, greases, air purification, nuclear applications.
2. Titanium:
Properties: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, biocompatible, heat-resistant.
Occurrence: Present as oxides—ilmenite, rutile, titanite.
Major producers: China, Russia, Japan.
Uses: Defense, aerospace, marine, nuclear, implants, electronics.
3. Zirconium:
Properties: Ductile, corrosion-resistant, lustrous, malleable.
Occurrence: Mainly found as zircon in beach sands.
Major producers: Australia, South Africa, China.
Uses: Nuclear reactors, aerospace, ceramics, superalloys, gemstones.
4. Beryllium:
Properties: Lightweight, high melting point, good thermal conductivity.
Occurrence: Extracted from beryl and bertrandite; forms gemstones like emerald/aquamarine.
Major producers: USA, China, Mozambique.
Uses: Defence, aerospace, semiconductors, X-ray windows.
5. Niobium:
Properties: Soft, corrosion-resistant, superconductive at low temperatures.
Occurrence: Found in coltan and pyrochlore.
Major producers: Brazil, Canada.
Uses: Alloys, electronics, implants, nuclear applications.
6. Tantalum:
Properties: Dense, corrosion-resistant, high melting point.
Occurrence: Extracted from coltan.
Major producers: DR Congo, Brazil, Rwanda.
Uses: Capacitors, aerospace, defence, medical implants, superalloys.
Lower Royalty Rates for Critical Minerals
Context:
Government amended the MMDR Act to specify lower royalty rates for:
Lithium
Niobium
Rare Earth Elements (REEs)
Objective: Increase private participation and boost domestic production.
Rare Earth Elements (REEs)
About REEs:
Group of 17 elements: 15 lanthanides + scandium + yttrium.
Abundant but hard to extract due to low concentration.
Types:
Light REEs (LREEs) – abundant; e.g., Neodymium.
Heavy REEs (HREEs) – scarce and more critical; e.g., Dysprosium, Yttrium.
Uses:
EV motors, turbines, medical devices, defence systems.
REEs Found in India:
Lanthanum, Cerium, Neodymium, Praseodymium, Samarium.
Significance of Lower Royalty Rates:
Encourages private investment and advanced mining technologies.
Boosts domestic production, reducing import dependence.
Supports India’s green transition and EV ecosystem.
Strategic Significance of Critical Minerals:
Economic: Backbone of EVs, renewables, electronics.
National Security: Essential for defence technologies.
Diplomacy: Facilitates partnerships like the India–Australia Critical Minerals Investment Partnership.
Challenges in Critical Mineral Mining:
Radioactivity risks during processing.
Nuclear waste management complexities.
Environmental degradation due to mining activities.
Ethical concerns linked to global mining supply chains.
High-temperature processing increases cost and energy use.
Health risks – e.g., beryllium exposure causing berylliosis.
Infrastructure gaps in refining and processing.
High import dependency, especially upon China.
Poor recycling rates – less than 1% recovered from e-waste.
Way Forward
- Create a national policy framework for critical minerals.
- Increase exploration and production, including deep-sea and offshore mining.
- Promote private sector participation and PPP models.
- Strengthen international collaborations and diversify global supply chains.
- Invest in recycling technologies and circular economy models.
Securing critical minerals through exploration, diversification, and global partnerships will strengthen India’s strategic autonomy, support its green transition, and position the nation as a key player in future high-technology and sustainable development pathways.
Prelims MCQ
Q. Consider the following minerals (PYQ 2020):
1. Bentonite
2. Chromite
3. Kyanite
4. Sillimanite
In India, which of the above are officially designated as major minerals?
Mains Question
Q. Discuss the multi-dimensional implications of uneven distribution of mineral oil in the world. (PYQ 2021)
CJI Gavai backs exclusion of creamy layer in reservation to scheduled castes
Relevance to UPSC
GS Paper II: Constitution & Social Justice
- Reservation policy: debate over applying the creamy layer concept to Scheduled Castes raises questions about the fairness and targeting of affirmative action.
- Role of judiciary: CJI’s comments show how the judiciary influences reservation policy and its socio-economic equality implications.
- Constitutional values: Gavai emphasizes equality, liberty, and fraternity, reflecting core constitutional principles.
More about the News
- CJI B.R. Gavai supports excluding the creamy layer from SC reservations to better target marginalised Scheduled Castes.
- He argues that children of affluent SC families (like IAS officers) should not get the same reservation benefits.
- He calls on states to formulate a policy to identify and exclude the SC/ST creamy layer, promoting true social justice.
Concept of Creamy Layer in Reservation System
Reservation in India is a constitutional mechanism designed to ensure social justice, uplift historically marginalized communities, and promote equitable representation in education, employment, and political institutions through affirmative action.
Reservation System in India
Key Issues and Criticisms in the Present Reservation System:
Increasing cases of fraudulent procurement of Non-Creamy Layer (NCL), EWS, and disability certificates.
Misuse of loopholes where parents gift assets or take premature retirement to escape the creamy layer cut-off.
Creamy layer criteria consider only parental income, ignoring the applicant’s or spouse’s income.
Rohini Commission findings:
97% of OBC reservation benefits cornered by only 25% of OBC castes.
Nearly 1,000 out of 2,600 OBC groups have zero representation.
Similar concentration of benefits in SC/ST categories, which currently do not have a creamy layer exclusion.
Total reservation has reached 60%, yet 40–50% of reserved posts remain vacant in central government jobs.
Debate on whether such a high percentage of reservation aligns with current socio-economic conditions.
System criticized for insufficient coverage of the most backward communities and poor benefit distribution.
Calls for restructuring, including sub-categorisation and improved verification mechanisms.
Evolution of Reservation in India
- The idea of quotas existed before Independence, especially in certain princely states.
- The Constitution (1950) guaranteed equality but permitted special provisions for disadvantaged groups under Articles 15 & 16.
- Initial central quotas: 15% for SCs and 7.5% for STs.
- Kaka Kalelkar Commission (1953) – First Backward Classes Commission; recommendations not implemented.
- Mandal Commission (1979) recommended 27% reservation for OBCs; implemented in 1990.
- Widespread national debate followed; Supreme Court upheld OBC reservation in Indra Sawhney (1992) but introduced:
- 50% ceiling, and
- Creamy layer exclusion.
- 93rd Constitutional Amendment (2005): Enabled reservation in private educational institutions.
- CEI Act, 2006: Implemented 27% OBC quota in central educational institutions.
- 103rd Constitutional Amendment (2019): Introduced 10% EWS quota in education and public employment.
- Many states now operate beyond the 50% threshold, subject to judicial scrutiny.
Creamy Layer – Meaning, Application & Proposed Changes
Definition & Objective
- A mechanism to exclude the relatively affluent sections among OBCs from reservation benefits.
- Introduced by the Supreme Court in Indra Sawhney (1992) to ensure benefits reach the truly backward.
Income Criteria:
- Current limit: ₹8 lakh per year, excluding salary and agricultural income.
- Supposed to be revised every three years; last revised in 2017.
Service-Based Criteria:
- Children of certain categories are automatically in creamy layer, regardless of income:
- Holders of constitutional posts.
- Group A officers, and certain Group B officers.
- Military officers of rank Colonel and above or equivalent.
- Children of certain categories are automatically in creamy layer, regardless of income:
Proposed Revisions:
- Government considering raising limit to ₹12 lakh; Parliamentary panel recommends ₹15 lakh.
- Proposal to include salary income but continue excluding agricultural income.
Major Loopholes and Operational Challenges in Reservation
- Falsification of NCL/EWS/Disability certificates due to poor verification mechanisms.
- Ways to bypass creamy layer norms, such as asset transfers or strategically reducing parental income.
- No inclusion of candidate/spouse income in creamy layer evaluation.
- Benefit concentration within a limited number of OBC castes, and similarly within SC/ST communities.
- Absence of creamy layer exclusion for SC/ST categories.
- Persistent backlogs and unfilled vacancies in reserved posts.
- No sub-categorisation within SC/ST/OBC groups to ensure equitable distribution.
- Misuse of disability certificates due to insufficient checks.
- Lack of periodic review and updating of backward-class lists and income thresholds.
- Absence of systems preventing multi-generational reservation benefits for already advanced families.
Judicial Position on Reservation in India
State of Madras v. Champakam Dorairajan (1951):
- First major SC ruling on reservation; struck down caste-based admissions.
- Led to First Constitutional Amendment inserting Article 15(4) enabling special provisions.
Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992):
- Upheld Mandal Commission recommendations.
- Key rulings:
- Creamy layer mandatory for OBCs.
- No reservation in promotions.
- Reservations cannot exceed 50% (general rule).
77th Constitutional Amendment (1995):
- Inserted Article 16(4A) allowing reservation in promotions for SC/STs.
M. Nagaraj v. Union of India (2006):
- Upheld 16(4A), but imposed conditions:
- SC/STs must be backward.
- They must be underrepresented.
- Reservation must not harm administrative efficiency.
- Upheld 16(4A), but imposed conditions:
Jarnail Singh v. Lachhmi Narain (2018):
- Removed requirement for proving backwardness for SC/STs in promotions.
- Extended creamy layer exclusion to SC/STs in promotions.
Janhit Abhiyan v. Union of India (2022):
- Upheld 103rd Constitutional Amendment introducing 10% EWS quota.
- Validated Articles 15(6) and 16(6) for EWS reservation.
Way Forward
- Introduce Sub-Categorisation Within Reserved Groups: Ensure equitable distribution of benefits among OBC/SC/ST communities by identifying the most underrepresented sub-groups.
- Strengthen Verification Systems: Use digital databases and cross-departmental data sharing to prevent misuse of NCL, EWS, and disability certificates.
- Reform Creamy Layer Criteria: Periodically revise income/service thresholds, include candidate and spouse income, and apply creamy layer to SC/ST promotions as directed by courts.
- Fill Backlog Vacancies Through Targeted Measures: Conduct special recruitment drives, skill development programmes, and simplified processes to fill long-pending reserved posts.
- Periodic Review of Reservation Policy: Create an independent body to re-evaluate backward class lists, monitor representation outcomes, and align reservation with changing socio-economic realities.
A future-ready reservation system must balance social justice with merit, reflect evolving socio-economic realities, strengthen targeted inclusion, and adopt data-driven reforms to build a more equitable and socially cohesive India.
Prelims MCQ
Q. Consider the following organizations/bodies in India: (PYQ 2023)
1. The National Commission for Backward Classes
2. The National Human Rights Commission
3. The National Law Commission
4. The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission
How many of the above are constitutional bodies?
Mains Question
Q. What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence addressing discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs). (PYQ 2017)
27 lakh MGNREGA workers deleted between October 10 and November 14
Relevance to UPSC
GS Paper I: Poverty, Indian Society
- Rural livelihoods: Large-scale deletion could undermine the rural employment guarantee, affecting livelihood security for the poor.
- Policy challenge: Raises questions about how to balance fraudulent enrollments vs. wrongful deletions while implementing social safety nets.
- Legal-administrative process: Need for due process in deletion, appeals mechanism, and transparency in job-card management.
GS Paper II: Governance, Rural Development & Social Justice
- Welfare scheme integrity: Deletion of MGNREGA worker registrations raises questions about beneficiary exclusion and the robustness of social welfare targeting.
- Institutional accountability: Highlights governance issues in the implementation of the MGNREGA scheme (e.g., review of job cards, data cleansing).
- Digital-inclusion & exclusion: Connection with Aadhaar-based payment system (ABPS) — digital requirements may be excluding needy workers.
More about the News
- Nearly 27 lakh workers were removed from MGNREGA database between October 10 and November 14, reports indicate.
- The deletions coincide with a push for Aadhaar-based e-KYC, potentially filtering out ineligible or ghost registrations.
- Critics argue this removal may exclude genuine rural workers, weakening the scheme’s ability to guarantee 100-day employment.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is a landmark social security initiative ensuring livelihood protection by guaranteeing 100 days of unskilled wage employment to rural households across India.
What is MGNREGA?
- MGNREGA stands for Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005.
- It is a rights-based law guaranteeing the “right to work” for rural citizens.
- Provides 100 days of assured unskilled manual employment to any adult member of a rural household willing to work.
- Aims to reduce rural poverty, enhance livelihood security, and strengthen rural infrastructure.
- The movement for the right to work was led by MKSS, economist Jean Drèze, and grassroots activists.
- MKSS mobilized drought-relief workers, leading to sustained activism that paved the way for MGNREGA.
Key Provisions of MGNREGA
- Eligibility: Must be an Indian citizen, ≥18 years, rural resident, and willing to perform unskilled work.
- Employment Guarantee: Assures 100 days of wage employment at prescribed minimum wages.
- Unemployment Allowance: Paid if work is not provided within 15 days—¼ of wage for first 30 days, ½ thereafter.
- Social Audit: Mandatory under Section 17; strengthens transparency and accountability.
- Location of Work: Usually within 5 km; travel allowance for work beyond this distance.
- Decentralized Planning: Panchayati Raj Institutions lead planning, execution, and monitoring; Gram Sabhas recommend works and execute at least half.
- Worksite Facilities: Safe working conditions, medical aid, and compensation ensured.
- Timely Payments: Wages must be paid within 15 days; delays attract compensation.
- Grievance Redressal: Complaints must be addressed within 7 days.
Evolution of MGNREGA
-
- Provides employment to ~15 million workers per day across ~1.4 million worksites.
- Budget cuts:
- 2023–24: ₹60,000 crore
- 2022–23: ₹89,400 crore
- 2021–22: ₹98,468 crore
- Generated 31+ billion person-days of employment since inception; expenditure over ₹6.4 lakh crore.
- Created 30+ million water conservation assets; approx. 50 such structures per village (Census 2011).
- Technology-driven reforms: online registration, DBT, geotagging of assets.
- NMMS App made compulsory in 2023 for capturing twice-daily digital attendance.
- Integrated with NRLM, PMAY, Swachh Bharat, etc., for resource convergence.
Significance of MGNREGA
- Enhances rural infrastructure—water, sanitation, housing, natural resources.
- Provides income cushioning; studies show it compensated 20–80% of COVID-induced income loss.
- Reduces distress migration from rural to urban areas.
- Creates durable assets—ponds, canals, wells, roads.
- Empowers citizens through a rights-based framework.
- Promotes transparency through mandated audits and accountability systems.
Best Practices from States
- Jalpaiguri: Polyculture system integrating fish farming and vegetables—boosting livelihoods.
- Paschim Bardhaman: MGNREGA-funded poultry sheds empowering women and improving nutrition.
- South West Khasi Hills: Community-built suspension bridge enabling better market connectivity.
Challenges in MGNREGA Implementation
- Corruption: Fund diversion and record manipulation; e.g., IAS officer accused in Jharkhand.
- Limited Workdays: Only 100 days of employment per household—insufficient for many families.
- Low Awareness: Many beneficiaries unaware of rights and entitlements.
- Bureaucratic Delays: Slow procedures; wage delays common (e.g., Andhra Pradesh).
- Poor Quality of Assets: Some works not aligned with local needs or lack technical quality.
- Financial Inclusion Issues: Low banking penetration hampers DBT wage payments (e.g., Bihar).
Outcomes of MGNREGA
Positive Outcomes:
- Drives inclusive growth in rural India.
- Enhances livelihood security for vulnerable sections.
- Builds durable natural resource assets—soil, water conservation, land productivity.
- Improves standard of living via increased income.
- Empowers SCs, STs, and women.
Negative Outcomes:
- Social audits irregular or poorly carried out.
- Leakages and fund siphoning persist.
- Digital/geotagging issues due to poor connectivity.
- Wage payments are often delayed.
- Minimum wages remain low.
Reforms Needed to Strengthen MGNREGA
- Urban Employment Scheme: Expand MGNREGA-like guarantee to urban low-skilled workers.
- UBI Consideration: Explore Universal Basic Income as a more efficient alternative to leak-prone schemes.
- Convergence: Align with schemes like NRLM, PMAY, and watershed programmes for durable outcomes.
- Digital Innovations: Improve transparency through tech-enabled monitoring systems, grievance portals, and strict use of digital attendance.
- Strengthen Social Audits: Make biannual audits mandatory and community-driven.
- Job Card Reforms: Ensure job cards are issued only to eligible households, not PRI members/officials.
Strengthening MGNREGA with digital monitoring, climate-resilient assets, skill-linked work, and timely payments can transform it into a sustainable rural development engine, enhancing livelihoods and building resilient communities for future challenges.
Prelims MCQ
Q. Among the following who are eligible to benefit from the “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act”? (PYQ 2011)
Mains Question
Q. MGNREGA, despite being a major rights-based rural livelihood scheme, suffers from fund shortages, digital exclusion, and weak accountability. Analyse how these constraints limit rural empowerment and propose long-term structural reforms for the next decade.
