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September 9th Current Affairs

Home / UPSC / Current affairs / UPSC Current Affairs – September 10th

Table of Contents

“Brent crude crosses $100/barrel as Iran-U.S. strikes intensify in Hormuz”

The escalating conflict between Iran and the United States around the Strait of Hormuz has sharply disrupted maritime movement and pushed Brent crude oil prices above $100 per barrel. The issue is important for UPSC because it connects International Relations, Indian Economy, Energy Security, Maritime Security and Geography.

What is happening?

The Strait of Hormuz has become a major flashpoint in the ongoing Iran–US conflict.

  • The US has attacked Iranian oil tankers, including five Iranian crude carriers.
  • Iran has responded by claiming attacks on several vessels near the Strait of Hormuz.
  • Maritime traffic through the Strait has fallen sharply. Preliminary tracking data showed only seven vessel transits on Wednesday, compared with a 10-day average of 14.
  • The uncertainty over the movement of oil tankers has created fears of a major disruption in global energy supplies.
  • Brent crude crossed $100 per barrel, reflecting the geopolitical risk premium in global oil markets.

Why is this significant?

The Strait of Hormuz is one of the world’s most important maritime chokepoints. Around one-fifth of global oil consumption has traditionally moved through this route. Therefore, even a partial disruption can affect oil prices, inflation, trade and economic growth worldwide.

What is the Strait of Hormuz?

The Strait of Hormuz is a narrow maritime passage connecting:

Persian Gulf → Strait of Hormuz → Gulf of Oman → Arabian Sea → Indian Ocean

It lies between:

  • Iran — north
  • Oman — south, particularly the Musandam Peninsula
  • The UAE is also strategically located immediately west/southwest of the Strait.

    Important geographical points for Prelims

    Feature

    Important fact

    Strait of Hormuz

    Connects Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman

    Northern side

    Iran

    Southern side

    Oman

    Musandam Peninsula

    Omani territory projecting into the Strait

    Persian Gulf

    Semi-enclosed sea connected to Arabian Sea through Hormuz

    Gulf of Oman

    Opens into Arabian Sea

    Arabian Sea

    Part of northern Indian Ocean

Why is Hormuz strategically important?

① Major oil chokepoint

A chokepoint is a narrow geographical passage through which a large volume of trade or strategic resources must pass.

The Strait of Hormuz is particularly important because major oil-producing countries of the Persian Gulf depend on maritime routes through it.

These include:

  • Saudi Arabia
  • Iraq
  • Kuwait
  • UAE
  • Qatar
  • Iran

A prolonged disruption can therefore create a global energy supply shock.

② Impact on global oil prices

When supply becomes uncertain:

Conflict → Shipping disruption → Fear of supply shortage → Oil prices rise → Transport & production costs rise → Inflationary pressure

The present crisis has already pushed Brent crude above $100/barrel.

③ Strategic military importance

The Strait provides access between the Persian Gulf and the wider Indian Ocean.

Therefore, control or disruption of Hormuz has implications for:

  • Naval power
  • Maritime security
  • Energy security
  • Global trade
  • Regional geopolitics

Why does it matter to India?

India’s dependence on imported crude oil

India is one of the world’s largest crude-oil importers.

A substantial part of India’s energy requirements is met through imports. Therefore, disruption in a major oil-producing region can increase India’s vulnerability.

Higher oil prices

If crude prices remain elevated:

Higher crude prices → Higher import bill → Pressure on current account → Possible inflationary pressure → Pressure on rupee → Higher transportation and production costs

India’s stock market has already faced pressure amid concerns over crude prices above $100.

Inflation

Crude oil affects several sectors:

  • Transport
  • Aviation
  • Fertilisers
  • Petrochemicals
  • Manufacturing
  • Logistics

Therefore, prolonged high oil prices can create cost-push inflation.

Balance of Payments

Higher expenditure on imported crude can increase India’s import bill and put pressure on the current account balance.

Strategic autonomy

The crisis highlights a fundamental challenge for India:

India may have diplomatic flexibility, but energy dependence can constrain strategic autonomy.

This is why India needs:

  • Diversification of oil suppliers
  • Strategic Petroleum Reserves
  • Renewable energy
  • Electric mobility
  • Domestic energy production
  • Alternative maritime routes
  • Stronger maritime security

The Hormuz crisis has been described as an energy, economic and diplomatic challenge for India, highlighting the vulnerability of external supply chains.

Strategic Petroleum Reserves

India maintains Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPR) to protect against sudden disruptions in crude oil supply.

Purpose

SPR acts as an emergency buffer during:

  • War
  • Natural disasters
  • Supply disruptions
  • Geopolitical crises
  • Sudden international oil-price shocks

Therefore:

Hormuz disruption → Possible supply shock → SPR can provide temporary protection

But SPR is only a short-term buffer, not a permanent solution.

Broader geopolitical implications

Iran

Iran’s geographical position gives it considerable strategic leverage because its coastline lies along the northern side of the Strait.

United States

The US has major military interests in the Persian Gulf and seeks to protect maritime navigation and its regional strategic interests.

Gulf countries

Countries such as Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait and Qatar depend heavily on secure maritime routes for energy exports.

Global economy

A prolonged disruption could affect:

Oil → Gas → Shipping → Inflation → Trade → Economic growth

The crisis therefore goes beyond West Asia and becomes a global economic issue.

Important term: Maritime chokepoint

What is a chokepoint?

A maritime chokepoint is a narrow sea passage through which a disproportionately large volume of international shipping passes.

Important chokepoints for UPSC

Chokepoint

Connects

Strait of Hormuz

Persian Gulf – Gulf of Oman

Bab-el-Mandeb

Red Sea – Gulf of Aden

Suez Canal

Mediterranean Sea – Red Sea

Strait of Malacca

Indian Ocean – Pacific Ocean

Turkish Straits

Black Sea – Mediterranean

Panama Canal

Atlantic – Pacific

Prelims tip: Do not confuse Hormuz with Bab-el-Mandeb.

Why did oil prices rise?

The immediate mechanism is risk perception.

Even before an actual complete blockade occurs, markets react to the possibility of disruption.

Chain:

Iran–US escalation

↓

Risk to tankers and shipping

↓

Lower/uncertain oil flows

↓

Fear of global supply shortage

↓

Oil prices rise

↓

Higher import costs

↓

Inflationary pressure

The uncertainty is particularly important because tanker tracking has become less reliable, with some vessels switching off their tracking systems. This makes it difficult to determine exactly how much oil is moving through Hormuz.

India's possible policy response

Expand affordable student housing

Government and universities should develop:

  • Affordable hostels
  • Rental housing
  • Public-private student accommodation
  • Dormitory-style housing

Mandatory safety certification

Buildings accommodating large numbers of students should undergo:

  • Structural audits
  • Fire-safety audits
  • Electrical inspections
  • Periodic certification

Stronger municipal enforcement

Municipal bodies need:

  • Better inspection mechanisms
  • Digitised building records
  • Strict action against illegal conversions
  • Accountability of officials

University–government partnership

Universities cannot completely distance themselves from student welfare.

The Centre, Delhi Government and universities should jointly plan:

Education + Housing + Transport + Safety

Student-centric urban planning

Education hubs should be planned as complete ecosystems, rather than simply clusters of universities.

Turning Economic Cooperation into Shared Prosperity

The article discusses how the United Arab Emirates (UAE) views BRICS as a platform for deeper economic cooperation, particularly by connecting markets, investment, technology, logistics and human capital. The central idea is that international economic cooperation should create tangible and inclusive benefits rather than remain limited to trade and investment figures

Why is this in the news?

The UAE’s engagement with BRICS is being highlighted as an example of how economic cooperation among emerging economies can promote shared prosperity, resilience and diversification.

The UAE became a full BRICS member on 1 January 2024, along with Egypt, Ethiopia and Iran. The expansion followed the decision taken at the Johannesburg BRICS Summit in August 2023.

What is the main idea of the article?

The article argues that economic cooperation should go beyond simply increasing trade.

Countries can benefit from cooperation in several interconnected areas:

  • Trade and investment
  • Technology transfer
  • Infrastructure
  • Logistics and connectivity
  • Energy cooperation
  • Supply-chain resilience
  • Knowledge and skills
  • Sustainable development
  • Financial cooperation

The UAE describes this approach as converting economic diversity into complementarity — meaning different countries can contribute different strengths to a common economic ecosystem.

Simple example

Consider the BRICS economies:

UAE → Finance + logistics + energy + global trade hub
India → Large market + services + technology + skilled workforce
China → Manufacturing + supply chains
Russia → Energy + natural resources
Brazil → Agriculture + commodities
Egypt → Suez Canal + logistics
South Africa → Minerals + gateway to African markets

Instead of competing only for markets, these countries can connect their respective strengths.

What is BRICS?

BRICS is a grouping of major emerging economies that seeks greater cooperation among countries of the Global South.

Original members

B – Brazil
R – Russia
I – India
C – China
S – South Africa

South Africa joined the original BRIC grouping in 2010.

The term BRIC was originally coined by economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 to describe Brazil, Russia, India and China.

2024 expansion

The Johannesburg Summit invited several countries to join.

Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran and UAE became full members from 1 January 2024. The status of some other invitees has evolved separately, so students should not automatically treat every country invited in 2023 as a confirmed full member.

Why is UAE important for BRICS?

The UAE brings a distinctive combination of:

Energy

The UAE is a major oil-producing country and an important participant in global energy markets.

Finance

Dubai and Abu Dhabi have developed into major international financial centres.

Logistics

The UAE’s geographical location connects:

Asia ↔ Middle East ↔ Africa ↔ Europe

Its ports and logistics infrastructure make it an important global trade hub.

Investment

The country has large sovereign wealth funds and significant international investment capacity.

Therefore, UAE’s participation can strengthen BRICS’ financial, trade and logistics dimensions.

Economic cooperation → Shared prosperity

This is the central conceptual point.

Economic cooperation can create shared prosperity through:

① Greater trade

Countries can reduce barriers and increase movement of:

  • Goods
  • Services
  • Capital
  • Technology

② Investment

Investment can create:

Capital → Infrastructure → Production → Employment → Income → Growth

③ Global value chains

Countries can specialise in different stages of production.

For example:

Raw materials → Manufacturing → Logistics → Services → Global markets

This creates greater economic interdependence.

④ Technology and knowledge sharing

Cooperation in:

  • Artificial intelligence
  • Digital infrastructure
  • Renewable energy
  • Biotechnology
  • Advanced manufacturing

can improve productivity and competitiveness.

⑤ Supply-chain resilience

Recent geopolitical conflicts have shown the dangers of excessive dependence on a single country or route.

Economic partnerships can help countries diversify suppliers and markets.

What does "economic resilience" mean?

Economic resilience means the ability of an economy to absorb external shocks and recover without severe disruption.

For example:

War / pandemic / trade disruption

↓

Supply-chain disruption

↓

Shortage / higher prices

↓

Economic pressure

Countries with diversified:

  • suppliers
  • markets
  • energy sources
  • transport routes
  • investment partners

are generally better positioned to withstand such shocks.

This makes BRICS cooperation relevant to economic resilience.

Significance for India

This article is particularly relevant to India because India is a founding BRICS member.

Greater export opportunities

BRICS countries collectively provide large markets for Indian:

  • Pharmaceuticals
  • IT services
  • Engineering goods
  • Textiles
  • Agricultural products
  • Chemicals

Investment opportunities

Greater economic cooperation can facilitate investment into Indian infrastructure, manufacturing and emerging sectors.

Energy security

India has major energy relationships with several BRICS countries.

Cooperation with energy-producing members can contribute to India’s energy security and diversification.

Global South leadership

India has repeatedly emphasised the interests of developing countries.

BRICS provides India with a platform to advocate for:

  • Developing-country interests
  • Reform of global institutions
  • Development finance
  • Food and energy security
  • Greater representation in global governance

Strategic autonomy

Greater economic engagement with multiple partners helps India avoid excessive dependence on any single geopolitical bloc.

This fits India’s broader approach of multi-alignment.

BRICS and the Global South

One of the most important UPSC dimensions is the changing global economic order.

Traditional global economic governance has been strongly influenced by institutions and groupings such as:

  • IMF
  • World Bank
  • G7
  • WTO

BRICS represents an important platform through which emerging economies seek a greater voice in global governance.

Therefore, BRICS is not merely an economic grouping; it also has geopolitical significance.

Important BRICS institutions

New Development Bank (NDB)

Established by BRICS countries to finance infrastructure and sustainable development projects in member and other developing countries.

Its headquarters is in Shanghai, China.

Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA)

A financial safety mechanism designed to provide support to member countries facing short-term balance-of-payments pressures.

Why important?

These institutions demonstrate that BRICS cooperation is not limited to diplomatic meetings; it also has financial and developmental mechanisms.

BRICS and India's economic diplomacy

India can use BRICS to pursue three broad objectives:

  1. Economic opportunities
    → Trade + investment + technology
  2. Development interests
    → Infrastructure + development finance
  3. Global governance reform
    → Greater representation for developing countries

Thus, BRICS complements India’s other partnerships rather than replacing them.

For example, India simultaneously engages with:

  • G20
  • BRICS
  • SCO
  • QUAD
  • ASEAN
  • Gulf countries
  • European Union
  • United States

This reflects India’s strategy of issue-based partnerships and strategic autonomy.

Challenges to BRICS economic cooperation

The idea of shared prosperity is attractive, but BRICS faces several challenges.

Different economic structures

Members include:

  • Energy exporters
  • Manufacturing powers
  • Agricultural economies
  • Service economies
  • Financial hubs

Their economic interests do not always coincide.

Geopolitical differences

There are significant political and strategic differences among members.

For example, India and China have unresolved strategic and border issues.

Trade barriers

Differences in:

  • tariffs
  • regulations
  • standards
  • currency systems
  • domestic policies

can restrict intra-BRICS trade.

Institutional limitations

BRICS does not have the same level of institutional integration as the European Union.

Therefore, converting political declarations into concrete economic outcomes remains a challenge.

National Register of Citizens (NRC)

Why is NRC in the news?

The issue of the National Register of Citizens (NRC) has again gained attention in the context of the ongoing Census 2027 and discussions surrounding the National Population Register (NPR). The distinction between Census, NPR and NRC is particularly important for UPSC. Recent reporting has highlighted concerns about whether expanded population data collection could eventually facilitate citizenship verification.

What is the National Register of Citizens?

The National Register of Citizens (NRC) is a register intended to contain information about Indian citizens, allowing the government to identify who is an Indian citizen.

It is important to distinguish it from the National Population Register (NPR):

NRC = Citizens
NPR = Usual residents

The NPR can therefore include both Indian citizens and foreign nationals who qualify as usual residents.

Historical background of NRC

The NRC is not a completely new concept.

1951 NRC

The first NRC was prepared in Assam in 1951, alongside the Census of that year.

Its purpose was to record people who were residing in Assam at that time.

However, the register was not subsequently updated on a regular basis.

Why Assam?

Assam shares a long international border with Bangladesh and has historically experienced migration across the border.

This made:

  • Illegal immigration
  • Citizenship
  • Demographic change
  • Electoral representation

important political and social issues in the State.

Assam NRC update

The most significant recent NRC exercise was undertaken in Assam following directions of the Supreme Court.

The updating process formally began in 2013 under the supervision of the Supreme Court.

The final NRC was published in August 2019.

Approximately 19 lakh people were excluded from the final list.

Important point

Being excluded from the NRC does not automatically mean that a person is declared a foreigner.

A person excluded from the list can pursue legal remedies through the prescribed mechanisms, including proceedings before Foreigners Tribunals.

What was the basis for Assam NRC?

The Assam NRC exercise was linked to establishing whether individuals or their ancestors had a connection with Assam before the specified historical cut-off date.

The key date was:

24 March 1971

This date originates from the Assam Accord of 1985.

The Assam Accord sought to address the issue of illegal migration into Assam.

Broad framework

People had to establish:

Citizenship/ancestral connection

↓

Documentary evidence

↓

Verification

↓

Inclusion or exclusion from NRC

Assam Accord and NRC

The Assam Accord, 1985 was signed between:

  • Government of India
  • Government of Assam
  • All Assam Students’ Union (AASU)
  • All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad

Major provision related to foreigners

The Accord established 25 March 1971 as the cut-off date for identifying foreigners in Assam.

Therefore, the NRC exercise used 24 March 1971 midnight / 25 March 1971 as the relevant dividing point.

Why important?

This links three important topics:

Assam Accord → Illegal migration → NRC

NRC and the Citizenship Act

The legal framework for citizenship in India is primarily provided by the:

Citizenship Act, 1955

The Constitution deals with citizenship in:

Articles 5–11

Part II of the Constitution contains provisions relating to citizenship.

Article 11 gives Parliament the power to make laws regarding acquisition and termination of citizenship and other matters relating to citizenship.

Citizenship Rules, 2003

The Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003 are important for understanding the relationship between NPR and NRC.

The Rules provide the framework for:

  • National Population Register
  • National Register of Indian Citizens
  • Verification of citizenship

The NPR is therefore relevant to the broader legal architecture for creating a citizens’ register.

NRC vs NPR vs Census

Feature

Census

NPR

NRC

Main purpose

Population statistics

Register of usual residents

Identify citizens

Includes foreigners?

Population enumeration covers residents as per census methodology

Yes

No, intended for citizens

Legal framework

Census Act, 1948

Citizenship Act + Citizenship Rules, 2003

Citizenship Act + Citizenship Rules

Main focus

Demographic & socio-economic data

Residence

Citizenship

Frequency

Normally every 10 years

Linked to census-related exercise

Not necessarily periodic

Nature

Statistical exercise

Population database

Citizenship register

Remember:

Census = How many people?

NPR = Who lives here?

NRC = Who is an Indian citizen?

Why is Census 2027 relevant to the NRC debate?

The current debate is partly connected with the new questions and information being collected during the Census 2027 exercise.

Recent reporting notes that some questions concern details such as:

  • Place of birth
  • Date of birth
  • Parents’ particulars
  • Nationality-related information
  • Identification documents

This has raised concerns among some observers that detailed population information could potentially be used for future citizenship verification.

But students must maintain a distinction:

Collection of demographic information ≠ automatic creation of NRC.

The government would still need to follow the relevant legal framework and procedures for any citizenship register.

Why is NRC controversial?

① Documentation problem

Many genuine citizens, especially economically vulnerable people, may not possess adequate historical documents.

This raises the question:

Can lack of documentation be equated with lack of citizenship?

This is a major governance and human-rights concern.

② Risk of wrongful exclusion

Errors in:

  • Names
  • Dates of birth
  • Land records
  • Electoral records
  • Family documents

can create difficulties in establishing citizenship.

③ Statelessness concern

A person who cannot establish citizenship and cannot establish citizenship elsewhere could potentially face a situation of de facto statelessness.

However, exclusion from NRC itself does not automatically make someone stateless.

④ Administrative burden

A nationwide citizenship verification exercise would require:

  • Large administrative machinery
  • Extensive documentation
  • Appeals
  • Tribunals
  • Judicial oversight

⑤ Privacy concerns

Large databases containing personal and family information raise questions about:

  • Data protection
  • Purpose limitation
  • Government access
  • Surveillance
  • Misuse of personal information

NRC and constitutional values

The issue has important connections with the Indian Constitution.

Article 14 — Equality before law

Citizenship-related procedures must operate within constitutional guarantees of equality and non-arbitrariness.

Article 21 — Life and personal liberty

Citizenship determination can have profound consequences for an individual’s:

  • Liberty
  • Dignity
  • Residence
  • Family life

Article 25

Questions involving citizenship and religion can also intersect with the constitutional protection of freedom of religion.

Rule of law

Citizenship determination must follow:

Law → Procedure → Evidence → Hearing → Appeal

rather than arbitrary administrative action.

NRC and illegal migration

One of the main arguments supporting NRC is the need to identify illegal migrants, particularly in sensitive border regions.

India shares international land borders with several countries, and illegal migration can create challenges related to:

  • Border management
  • National security
  • Demographic changes
  • Labour markets
  • Public resources
  • Electoral politics

However, the identification process must distinguish between:

Illegal migrant ≠ refugee ≠ asylum seeker ≠ Indian citizen

These categories have different legal and humanitarian implications.

Why is Assam particularly important?

Assam is geographically significant because it shares an international boundary with Bangladesh.

The region has historically experienced migration, and the issue became politically significant because of concerns regarding changes in:

  • Population composition
  • Land ownership
  • Employment
  • Political representation
  • Electoral rolls
  • Cultural identity

The Assam Movement (1979–1985) eventually contributed to the signing of the Assam Accord.

NRC and National Security

From the national-security perspective, a citizens’ register can potentially help the State distinguish between:

Citizens ↔ Non-citizens

This could assist in:

  • Border management
  • Identification of illegal migration
  • National security
  • Better population databases

However, security objectives must be balanced with:

  • Constitutional rights
  • Due process
  • Privacy
  • Human dignity
  • Protection against wrongful exclusion

NRC — Way Forward

A balanced approach should focus on:

  1. Clear legal framework

Citizenship verification should have transparent and predictable rules.

  1. Accessible documentation

Poor and vulnerable citizens should not be disadvantaged simply because they lack formal records.

  1. Due process

Every person facing exclusion should have:

  • Notice
  • Opportunity to present evidence
  • Hearing
  • Appeal
  1. Data protection

Personal information must be protected from unauthorised access and misuse.

  1. Humanitarian approach

The government must distinguish between illegal migrants, refugees, asylum seekers and genuine citizens.

  1. Better border management

Technology, fencing where appropriate, surveillance and bilateral cooperation with neighbouring countries can address illegal migration without relying solely on documentation exercises.

Article 371 — Special Constitutional Provisions for States

Why in News?

The issue has gained attention because of the Centre’s proposal to provide Ladakh with special constitutional safeguards through a proposed Article 371(K). The proposal is intended to address concerns over land, employment, cultural identity and local governance in Ladakh. However, the exact powers and institutional framework are still under discussion.

This is important for UPSC because it requires understanding asymmetric federalism, special provisions for States, regional aspirations and constitutional safeguards.

What is Article 371?

Article 371 is part of Part XXI of the Constitution — “Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions.”

It provides special constitutional arrangements for particular States and regions to address their distinctive:

  • Historical circumstances
  • Cultural identities
  • Tribal traditions
  • Regional inequalities
  • Administrative requirements
  • Developmental needs

The Constitution therefore does not always apply exactly the same institutional arrangements to every State.

This is known as:

Asymmetric Federalism

In simple words:

Different regions may receive different constitutional arrangements to achieve substantive equality while maintaining national unity.

The Supreme Court has also recognised Article 371 provisions as part of India’s system of asymmetric federalism, designed to accommodate regional differences.

Why was Article 371 created?

India is characterised by enormous diversity.

Different regions have different:

  • Languages
  • Tribes
  • Customs
  • Historical experiences
  • Economic conditions
  • Geographical characteristics
  • Political aspirations

A completely uniform administrative model may not always address these differences effectively.

Therefore, the Constitution provides special provisions as a mechanism of accommodation.

Constitutional approach:

Regional diversity

↓

Special constitutional safeguards

↓

Protection of local interests

↓

Greater political integration

↓

National unity

Thus, special provisions are not necessarily a sign of weak federalism. They can actually strengthen national integration by accommodating regional aspirations.

Article 371 is NOT only about the Northeast

This is a very important UPSC point.

The Article 371 family covers 12 States:

  1. Maharashtra
  2. Gujarat
  3. Nagaland
  4. Assam
  5. Manipur
  6. Andhra Pradesh
  7. Telangana
  8. Sikkim
  9. Mizoram
  • Arunachal Pradesh
  • Goa
  • Karnataka

The Government has previously officially identified these 12 States as having special provisions under Articles 371 to 371J.

Article 371 to 371J — State-wise understanding

This table is very important for Prelims.

Article

State

Main provision

371

Maharashtra & Gujarat

Development boards and equitable development

371A

Nagaland

Protection of Naga customs, customary law and land

371B

Assam

Committee of Legislative Assembly for tribal areas

371C

Manipur

Hill Areas Committee

371D

Andhra Pradesh & Telangana

Equitable opportunities in public employment and education

371E

Andhra Pradesh

Central University

371F

Sikkim

Special provisions following its integration with India

371G

Mizoram

Protection of Mizo customs, customary law and land

371H

Arunachal Pradesh

Governor’s special responsibility for law and order

371I

Goa

Minimum strength of Legislative Assembly

371J

Karnataka

Special provisions for Kalyana Karnataka

These provisions vary considerably; Article 371 is therefore not one uniform package of special status.

Article 371 — Maharashtra and Gujarat

This is the original Article 371 provision in its present form.

The President can provide for special responsibility of the Governor concerning:

Maharashtra

  • Vidarbha
  • Marathwada
  • Rest of Maharashtra

Gujarat

  • Saurashtra
  • Kutch
  • Rest of Gujarat

The purpose is to ensure:

  • Equitable allocation of development funds
  • Balanced regional development
  • Technical education
  • Vocational training
  • Employment opportunities

Separate development boards are provided for these regions.

UPSC point

Article 371 → Maharashtra + Gujarat → Development imbalance

Article 371A — Nagaland

This is one of the most important provisions for Prelims.

Parliamentary laws relating to certain matters will not apply to Nagaland unless the Nagaland Legislative Assembly decides otherwise.

These include:

  • Naga religious or social practices
  • Naga customary law and procedure
  • Administration of civil and criminal justice involving customary law
  • Ownership and transfer of land and its resources

Why?

It protects the distinctive Naga customary and cultural institutions.

Remember:

371A → Nagaland → Customs + Customary Law + Land

Article 371B — Assam

It provides for a committee of the Assam Legislative Assembly consisting of members elected from the tribal areas.

The President can provide for the constitution and functioning of this committee.

Remember:

371B → Assam → Tribal Areas Committee

Article 371C — Manipur

Article 371C provides for a Hill Areas Committee in the Manipur Legislative Assembly.

The Governor has a special responsibility concerning the administration of the Hill Areas and reports to the President on their administration.

Remember:

371C → Manipur → Hill Areas Committee

Article 371D — Andhra Pradesh & Telangana

This provision focuses mainly on equitable opportunities and facilities for people from different parts of the State.

It relates particularly to:

  • Public employment
  • Education

The objective is to address regional inequalities.

Example

If one region historically has better educational institutions and government employment opportunities than another, special arrangements can help create greater regional balance.

Remember:

371D → AP + Telangana → Jobs + Education

Article 371E — Andhra Pradesh

Article 371E provides for the establishment of a Central University in Andhra Pradesh.

Prelims trap

Do not confuse:

371D → Regional opportunities

with

371E → Central University

Article 371F — Sikkim

Sikkim’s constitutional position is unique because it became a State of India in 1975.

Article 371F contains special provisions concerning Sikkim’s integration into the Indian constitutional framework.

It protects several existing arrangements and provides for special constitutional mechanisms.

Remember:

371F → Sikkim → Integration with India

Article 371G — Mizoram

Article 371G provides protection similar in some respects to Article 371A.

Parliamentary laws relating to:

  • Religious or social practices of Mizos
  • Mizo customary law
  • Administration of civil and criminal justice involving customary law
  • Ownership and transfer of land

do not automatically apply unless the Mizoram Legislative Assembly decides otherwise.

Remember:

371G → Mizoram → Customs + Customary Law + Land

Article 371H — Arunachal Pradesh

The Governor of Arunachal Pradesh has a special responsibility with respect to law and order in the State.

The Governor may exercise individual judgment in this matter after consulting the Council of Ministers, subject to the constitutional framework.

Remember:

371H → Arunachal Pradesh → Law & Order

Article 371I — Goa

This is comparatively simple.

The Legislative Assembly of Goa must consist of not less than 30 members.

Remember:

371I → Goa → Minimum 30 MLAs

Article 371J — Karnataka

This provision is particularly important for Karnataka.

It provides special provisions for the Hyderabad-Karnataka region, now officially known as Kalyana Karnataka.

It provides for:

  • Separate development board
  • Equitable allocation of development funds
  • Opportunities in public employment
  • Educational opportunities
  • Vocational training

The provision was inserted through the 98th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2012.

Why was 371J necessary?

The region had historically experienced developmental backwardness compared with other parts of Karnataka.

Therefore:

371J

→ Regional development
→ Education opportunities
→ Employment opportunities
→ Balanced development

Current development — Proposed Article 371(K) for Ladakh

This is the most important current-affairs connection.

Following the creation of Ladakh as a Union Territory in 2019, there have been sustained demands for stronger constitutional safeguards.

The Centre has now proposed a new constitutional provision, tentatively referred to as Article 371(K).

Major concerns in Ladakh

Local groups have sought safeguards concerning:

  • Land
  • Employment
  • Cultural identity
  • Ecology
  • Local representation
  • Greater self-governance

The proposal is being discussed as a possible alternative to some demands for Sixth Schedule protection.

Article 371(K) vs Sixth Schedule

This is an important potential UPSC question.

Sixth Schedule

The Sixth Schedule provides autonomous district councils in specified tribal areas of:

  • Assam
  • Meghalaya
  • Tripura
  • Mizoram

These councils have certain legislative, judicial and administrative powers.

Article 371-type protection

Article 371 provisions are state-specific constitutional arrangements.

They can provide:

  • Land protection
  • Cultural protection
  • Development mechanisms
  • Employment/education safeguards
  • Special responsibilities of Governors

Therefore, an Article 371(K) arrangement need not necessarily reproduce the institutional structure of the Sixth Schedule. The proposed Ladakh framework is still under discussion.

What is Asymmetric Federalism?

This is the core UPSC concept behind Article 371.

Normal federalism

States generally operate under broadly similar constitutional arrangements.

Asymmetric federalism

Different States or regions receive different powers or safeguards according to their historical, cultural, geographical or developmental circumstances.

India uses asymmetric federalism through mechanisms such as:

  • Article 371 series
  • Sixth Schedule
  • Certain special arrangements for particular regions

Why does India need it?

India follows the principle:

Unity does not necessarily require uniformity.

Different treatment can sometimes be necessary to achieve substantive equality.

The Supreme Court has described these provisions as part of the Constitution’s accommodation of regional differences.

Article 371 vs Article 370

Do NOT confuse them.

Article 371

Article 370

Special provisions for several States

Special constitutional arrangement for J&K

Articles 371–371J continue to operate

Article 370’s operation was fundamentally altered in 2019

Provisions differ from State to State

Historically dealt specifically with J&K

Mainly addresses regional/cultural/developmental concerns

Had a distinct constitutional relationship with J&K

UPSC trap

Article 371 was NOT abolished in 2019.

The continuing provisions under Articles 371–371J are still part of the Constitution.

Why is Article 371 important for Indian federalism?

Article 371 demonstrates that Indian federalism is flexible rather than rigidly symmetrical.

It helps the Union accommodate:

Cultural diversity

Protection of customs and traditions.

Regional inequality

Special development mechanisms.

Tribal interests

Protection of customary institutions and land.

Political aspirations

Greater regional representation and participation.

National integration

Regional demands can be addressed within the constitutional framework rather than outside it.

Challenges

Special constitutional provisions can also create challenges.

  1. Unequal constitutional arrangements

Different provisions may create perceptions of unequal treatment between States.

  1. Implementation

Constitutional safeguards are meaningful only when adequately implemented.

  1. Regionalism

Strong emphasis on local identity can sometimes reinforce regional political demands.

  1. Centre-State tensions

Questions may arise regarding the balance between:

National policies ↔ State autonomy ↔ Local interests

  1. Development gaps

Special provisions do not automatically eliminate regional backwardness; effective governance and investment remain necessary.

India’s Sugar Problem: Why Sugar Consumption Needs a Policy Response

Why in News?

The issue concerns India’s growing health burden from excessive consumption of sugar and other unhealthy ingredients. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has proposed that packaged foods high in fat, salt and sugar (HFSS) carry a prominent red warning label on the front of the package, rather than relying mainly on information printed on the back. The proposal follows concerns raised by the Supreme Court.

This is important for UPSC because it connects Public Health, Nutrition, FSSAI, Consumer Awareness, Food Regulation and Social Justice.

What is the issue?

India is facing a double burden of malnutrition:

  • Undernutrition still affects vulnerable sections.
  • At the same time, overweight, obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are increasing.

High consumption of foods containing excessive:

  • Sugar
  • Salt
  • Saturated/trans fats
  • Ultra-processed ingredients

can contribute to unhealthy diets.

The concern is particularly significant among children and adolescents. The World Obesity Atlas 2026 estimates that about 41 million Indians aged 5–19 are overweight or obese.

What is Front-of-Pack Labelling?

Front-of-Pack Labelling (FOPL) means displaying important nutritional information prominently on the front of a food package.

The purpose is to help consumers make a quick and informed decision while purchasing food.

Proposed approach

Products high in fat, salt or sugar could carry a prominent warning so that consumers can identify unhealthy nutritional profiles without having to examine detailed information on the back.

Why is this important?

Consider a consumer buying a packaged snack.

Without a clear warning:

Attractive packaging → Purchase → Detailed nutrition information may be ignored

With prominent warning:

Warning → Better awareness → Informed choice → Potentially healthier consumption

Therefore, FOPL is a behavioural and regulatory intervention.

Why is sugar a public-health concern?

Excessive consumption of free sugars can increase overall calorie intake without providing comparable nutritional value.

High-sugar diets are associated with increased risk of:

  • Overweight and obesity
  • Dental caries
  • Metabolic disorders
  • Type-2 diabetes
  • Other diet-related NCDs

Important distinction

Natural sugars present within whole fruits and vegetables are not the same as free/added sugars.

For UPSC, focus particularly on added or free sugars in processed foods and beverages.

Ultra-Processed Foods

The debate over sugar is part of a larger concern about ultra-processed foods (UPFs).

These products may contain combinations of:

  • Added sugar
  • Salt
  • Unhealthy fats
  • Artificial additives
  • Flavouring agents

Examples can include certain:

  • Sugary beverages
  • Packaged snacks
  • Confectionery
  • Ready-to-eat products

Why are UPFs important?

Their consumption can increase dietary exposure to unhealthy ingredients and may contribute to poor nutritional outcomes when they displace healthier foods.

What is FSSAI?

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India

FSSAI is India’s statutory food regulator.

It was established under the:

Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006

Its broad responsibilities include:

  • Setting food standards
  • Regulating food safety
  • Monitoring food products
  • Licensing and registration of food businesses
  • Regulating food labelling
  • Ensuring consumer protection in food safety matters

Administrative Ministry

FSSAI functions under the:

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

Why are warning labels important?

Food labels operate through information disclosure.

The underlying assumption is:

If consumers understand the health risks associated with a product, they can make better choices.

But simply providing information may not always change behaviour.

Therefore, the debate is about whether labels should be:

Informational → or → clearly cautionary

A prominent warning label attempts to make the health risk visible at the point of purchase.

Role of the Supreme Court

The current debate has also been influenced by the Supreme Court’s concern over unhealthy food consumption and children’s health.

This raises an important governance principle:

Right to health + Consumer protection

Food regulation is not merely about preventing contamination.

It increasingly involves ensuring that consumers are not exposed to misleading or insufficiently visible information about the health consequences of food products.

The larger issue: India’s NCD burden

India’s disease profile has changed significantly.

Earlier policy discussions focused heavily on:

Communicable diseases + undernutrition

Today India faces:

Communicable diseases + undernutrition + NCDs

This is called the:

Triple burden of disease

NCDs include:

  • Diabetes
  • Cardiovascular diseases
  • Cancer
  • Chronic respiratory diseases

Unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, tobacco and alcohol are among the major behavioural risk factors for NCDs.

Why children are particularly important?

Children develop food preferences and consumption habits early in life.

They are also particularly exposed to:

  • Advertising
  • Attractive packaging
  • Celebrity endorsements
  • Sugary drinks
  • Processed snacks
  • School-area food environments

Therefore, simply expecting children to make completely informed dietary choices may be unrealistic.

Policy response can include:

Better labelling + restrictions on misleading advertising + nutrition education + healthier school food environments

Sugar and taxation

A major policy question is whether unhealthy sugary products should face higher taxation.

Basic economic logic:

Higher tax on unhealthy product

↓

Higher price

↓

Lower consumption

↓

Reduced health burden

This is known as a:

Pigouvian tax

It attempts to make consumers/producers account for negative externalities created by consumption.

What is a negative externality?

A negative externality occurs when an individual’s economic activity imposes costs on others that are not fully reflected in the market price.

For example:

Excessive consumption of unhealthy food

↓

Higher incidence of diet-related diseases

↓

Higher healthcare expenditure

↓

Part of the burden falls on families and the public healthcare system.

Thus, society may bear part of the cost of private consumption.

Important policy dilemma

There is a tension between:

Public health

Reduce consumption of unhealthy foods.

and

Consumer choice

Individuals should have freedom to decide what they consume.

The government therefore needs to create an environment where people can make informed choices, rather than simply imposing restrictions.

Why labelling alone may not be enough

A warning label can improve information, but it cannot solve every aspect of India’s nutrition problem.

A comprehensive strategy should include:

  1. Regulation

Strong food-safety and labelling standards.

  1. Taxation

Appropriate fiscal measures for products with significant negative health externalities.

  1. Awareness

Nutrition education in schools and communities.

  1. Advertising regulation

Especially protection of children from misleading marketing.

  1. Healthy alternatives

Affordable and accessible nutritious food.

  1. School nutrition

Healthier food environments in and around schools.

Important distinction: Sugar problem vs Sugar industry

Do not confuse the public-health debate over sugar consumption with India’s sugarcane/sugar industry policy.

They are two different UPSC topics.

Public-health issue

Excess sugar consumption → obesity/NCDs → FSSAI → labelling

Agricultural/economic issue

Sugarcane → sugar mills → MSP/FRP → ethanol → exports → government policy

However, both can be connected through food and nutrition policy.

 

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