Primus Civil Services Academy

Login / Register
Facebook Instagram Youtube Telegram X-twitter
  • +91 9364908441
  • reachout@primusias.com
Stay connected via Google News
Follow us for the latest travel updates and guides.
Add as preferred source on Google

September 17th Current Affairs

Home / UPSC / Current affairs / UPSC Current Affairs – September 17th

Table of Contents

Houthis Accused of Targeting Mecca- Saudi Arabia intercepts Houthi drone near Islam’s holiest city

Why in News?

Saudi Arabia said its air-defence forces intercepted and destroyed a drone launched by Yemen’s Houthi movement south of Mecca on September 15, 2026, before it entered the restricted airspace over the holy city. Saudi authorities described the security of the Two Holy Mosques and pilgrims as a “red line.”

However, the Houthis denied targeting Mecca, stating that their operations were directed at Saudi military and economic targets and not Islamic holy sites. Therefore, the allegation and denial should be clearly distinguished in UPSC answers.

Who are the Houthis?

  • The Houthis, officially known as Ansar Allah, are a powerful armed and political movement based in Yemen
  • They emerged from Yemen’s Zaydi Shia community.
  • In 2014, the Houthis captured Yemen’s capital, Sana’a, triggering a major phase of the Yemeni civil war.
  • In 2015, Saudi Arabia led a coalition that intervened militarily in Yemen against the Houthis.
  • The conflict has regional dimensions because the Houthis have received varying forms of support from Iran, while Saudi Arabia has backed forces opposed to them.
  • The Houthis possess ballistic missiles, cruise missiles and drones, allowing them to strike targets well beyond their immediate territorial base.
  •  

Why is this significant?

  1. Escalation of the Yemen conflict

The incident represents the widening geographical scope of the confrontation between the Houthis and Saudi Arabia. The latest escalation has involved drones and missile attacks against Saudi territory, while Saudi forces have carried out strikes against Houthi positions in Yemen.

  1. Strategic importance of the Red Sea

The Houthis have expanded their presence along Yemen’s Red Sea coastline. This is strategically important because Yemen lies close to the Bab el-Mandeb Strait.

Bab el-Mandeb connects:

Red Sea → Gulf of Aden → Arabian Sea → Indian Ocean

It is one of the world’s important maritime chokepoints and forms part of the major shipping route connecting the Indian Ocean with the Suez Canal and Europe.

  1. Threat to global trade and energy security

Instability around Bab el-Mandeb can:

  • disrupt commercial shipping;
  • increase insurance and freight costs;
  • force ships to take longer routes around the Cape of Good Hope;
  • affect global oil and gas transportation;
  • increase delivery times between Asia and Europe.

Recent Houthi territorial gains around Yemen’s Red Sea coast have therefore raised concerns about the security of this maritime corridor.

  1. Regional geopolitical dimension

The conflict reflects the wider strategic competition involving:

Saudi Arabia ↔ Houthis ↔ Iran

It also intersects with broader instability in West Asia, including tensions involving the Red Sea, Strait of Hormuz and regional military powers.

Previous incident involving Mecca

Saudi authorities have also referred to a 2017 incident, when a ballistic missile launched from Yemen was reported as being intercepted while heading towards the Mecca area. The Houthis have denied targeting the holy city in the present incident.

India and the issue

India expressed deep concern over the reported attempted drone attack near Mecca and called for the restoration of peace and stability in West Asia. New Delhi has also highlighted the importance of protecting freedom of navigation through the Bab el-Mandeb Strait.

Why it matters to India

West Asian instability → Red Sea/Bab el-Mandeb insecurity → shipping disruption → higher freight/insurance costs → impact on India’s trade and energy security.

India has significant economic and strategic interests in:

  • Red Sea maritime routes
  • Bab el-Mandeb
  • Suez Canal
  • Gulf region
  • energy imports from West Asia
  • safety of Indian citizens and seafarers in the region.

Prelims Facts

Term

Significance

Houthis / Ansar Allah

Armed-political movement in Yemen

Sana’a

Capital of Yemen; controlled by Houthis

Mecca

Holiest city in Islam

Kaaba

Located in Masjid al-Haram, Mecca

Bab el-Mandeb

Strait connecting Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Red Sea

Connects towards Mediterranean through Suez Canal

Gulf of Aden

Lies between Yemen and the Horn of Africa

Hajj

Annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca

Umrah

Pilgrimage to Mecca that can be performed outside the Hajj period

Dadasaheb Phalke Award 2024 — Anant Nag to Receive India’s Highest Honour in Cinema

Why is this in the news?

Veteran Kannada actor Anant Nag has been selected for the Dadasaheb Phalke Award for 2024 for his contribution to Indian cinema and his cinematic journey spanning more than five decades. The award will be presented at the 72nd National Film Awards ceremony on September 22, 2026, at Kevadia, Gujarat. The selection was made on the recommendation of the Dadasaheb Phalke Award Selection Committee.

Anant Nag has worked in Kannada, Hindi and other South Indian-language films and has also been active in theatre. He has acted in more than 300 films during his career.

Who is Anant Nag?

  • Anant Nag is a veteran Indian actor primarily associated with Kannada cinema.
  • He began his career with theatre before entering films.
  • His film career began in the 1970s.
  • He has worked in Kannada as well as Hindi and other South Indian-language films.
  • His career spans more than five decades.
  • He has also received several other honours, including the Padma Bhushan and Karnataka State awards.

Significance for Karnataka

Anant Nag becomes the second Kannada artist after Dr. Rajkumar to receive the Dadasaheb Phalke Award. This makes the award particularly relevant from the perspective of Kannada cinema and India’s regional-language film traditions.

Dadasaheb Phalke Award

The Dadasaheb Phalke Award is the highest Indian honour in the field of cinema.

Key Facts

Feature

Details

Instituted

1969

Named after

Dadasaheb Phalke

First recipient

Devika Rani

Purpose

Recognises outstanding contribution to the growth and development of Indian cinema

Presented by

Government of India

Award components

Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus), shawl and cash prize

Current cash component

₹10 lakh

The award was instituted to commemorate Dadasaheb Phalke’s contribution to Indian cinema.

Who was Dadasaheb Phalke?

Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, popularly known as Dadasaheb Phalke, is regarded as the Father of Indian Cinema.

Raja Harishchandra

  • In 1913, Phalke made Raja Harishchandra.
  • It is regarded as India’s first full-length feature film.
  • His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Indian cinema.
  • The country’s highest cinematic honour was subsequently named after him.

Important distinction for Prelims

Dadasaheb Phalke Award ≠ National Film Award for Best Film

The Dadasaheb Phalke Award is a lifetime/contribution-based recognition for exceptional contribution to Indian cinema, whereas the National Film Awards recognise achievements across various film categories.

Why is this important for UPSC?

  1. Culture and Heritage

The award highlights India’s cinematic heritage and the contribution of individuals to the growth of Indian cinema.

  1. Regional Cinema

Anant Nag’s recognition highlights the importance of regional-language cinema in India’s diverse cultural landscape.

Indian cinema is not limited to Hindi cinema. Major film traditions have developed in:

  • Kannada
  • Malayalam
  • Tamil
  • Telugu
  • Bengali
  • Marathi
  • Assamese
  • Odia and other languages.
  1. Cultural Diversity

Cinema acts as an important medium for:

Language → Literature → Theatre → Performing arts → Social narratives → Cultural identity

National Film Awards

The National Film Awards are India’s major national-level film awards.

  • They were established in 1954.
  • They recognise excellence in Indian cinema across different categories.
  • The Dadasaheb Phalke Award is presented as part of the National Film Awards ceremony.
  • The 72nd National Film Awards ceremony is scheduled for September 22, 2026 at Kevadia, Gujarat.

Currency Conundrum: Boosting Local-Currency Trade in BRICS

Why in News?

The BRICS New Delhi Declaration has called for greater use of local currencies in trade and financial transactions among member countries. However, for India, expanding local-currency trade involves both potential benefits and important trade-offs. The declaration does not establish a common BRICS currency; instead, it supports greater use of existing national currencies while recognising that countries have different priorities.

What is Local-Currency Trade?

Local-currency trade means that two countries settle their bilateral trade using their own national currencies instead of a third currency such as the U.S. dollar.

Example:

Suppose India imports goods from Russia.

Traditional settlement:

India → ₹ → US Dollar → Russia

Local-currency settlement:

India → ₹ → Russia
Russia → Ruble → India

This can reduce the need for conversion through the dollar or another intermediary currency.

Why is BRICS promoting local currencies?

  1. Reduce dependence on the U.S. dollar

A large proportion of international trade and financial transactions is conducted in dollars.

Greater use of national currencies can provide BRICS countries with an alternative channel for settling trade.

This is part of the broader discussion on de-dollarisation.

Important: De-dollarisation does not necessarily mean replacing the dollar completely. It can also mean diversifying the currencies used for international transactions.

  1. Reduce transaction costs

When trade is settled directly in local currencies, businesses may avoid some costs associated with converting:

Rupee → Dollar → Ruble

into:

Rupee → Ruble

This could make bilateral transactions more efficient.

  1. Reduce exposure to external financial shocks

Heavy dependence on a third currency exposes countries to:

  • exchange-rate fluctuations;
  • changes in U.S. monetary policy;
  • restrictions on international payments;
  • sanctions and geopolitical disruptions.

Local-currency mechanisms can provide an additional payment channel.

Why is this complicated for India?

This is the central issue highlighted by the article.

India is simultaneously:

  • a major exporter, and
  • a major importer.

From the exporter’s perspective

Indian exporters often prefer receiving U.S. dollars or other internationally accepted currencies, because these currencies have broad global usability and liquidity.

A weaker rupee can also increase the rupee value of dollar-denominated export earnings.

From the importer’s perspective

Indian importers may benefit from paying in a partner country’s currency if it reduces conversion costs and facilitates cheaper settlement.

Therefore, India’s interests are not identical on both sides of trade.

This creates a policy dilemma:

Promote local-currency settlement
↕
Preserve access to globally liquid currencies such as the dollar

India–Russia Example

India and Russia have increased efforts to facilitate local-currency trade settlement, particularly after Western sanctions on Russia complicated conventional international payment channels. India has also been working to strengthen payment mechanisms as it seeks to expand bilateral trade.

However, local-currency settlement creates another problem:

What happens when trade is imbalanced?

Suppose:

India exports ₹10 billion worth of goods to Russia

but

India imports ₹100 billion worth of goods from Russia.

Russia may accumulate large amounts of rupees.

If Russia cannot easily use those rupees to purchase Indian goods, invest in India or convert them into another usable currency, the mechanism becomes difficult to sustain.

This is known as the trade-imbalance/liquidity problem.

Major Challenges to Local-Currency Trade

  1. Currency convertibility

A currency needs sufficient convertibility and international acceptance for widespread use.

  1. Liquidity

There must be enough demand for the currencies involved.

  1. Trade imbalance

If one country consistently exports much more than it imports, its partner can accumulate large amounts of its currency.

  1. Exchange-rate risk

Local-currency settlement does not eliminate currency risk. Businesses still face fluctuations in the value of the currencies involved.

  1. Payment infrastructure

Countries need efficient cross-border payment systems and mechanisms for:

  • settlement;
  • clearing;
  • currency conversion;
  • dispute resolution.

BRICS has been working on greater interoperability of payment systems, rather than creating an immediate single BRICS currency.

  1. Dominance of major currencies within BRICS

China has a very large share of BRICS trade. Therefore, a substantial expansion of local-currency trade could increase the role of the Chinese yuan, creating strategic and economic considerations for India.

Local Currency Trade vs Common BRICS Currency

Local-currency trade

Common BRICS currency

Uses existing national currencies

Would require creation of a new common currency

Bilateral/multilateral settlement

Single currency for participating countries

No monetary union required

Would involve much deeper financial integration

Already being explored

No established common BRICS currency

More incremental approach

Much more complex arrangement

India has supported greater local-currency settlement but has not endorsed the creation of a common BRICS currency.

Why is this important for India?

Economic significance

Greater local-currency settlement could:

  • reduce transaction costs;
  • facilitate bilateral trade;
  • provide alternatives during payment disruptions;
  • reduce dependence on intermediary currencies;
  • support internationalisation of the Indian rupee.

India has also recently eased rules concerning rupee-denominated export payments, treating them more favourably in trade-policy terms to encourage wider use of the rupee in international commerce.

Strategic significance

It can increase India’s strategic autonomy by providing additional payment channels during geopolitical or financial disruptions.

However, India must balance this with:

  • the continued importance of the dollar;
  • India’s export interests;
  • currency convertibility;
  • trade imbalances;
  • the need for adequate foreign-exchange liquidity.

What Should India Focus On?

Rather than completely replacing the dollar, India can pursue a diversified payment architecture.

Possible approach:

Rupee internationalisation + local-currency settlement + interoperable digital payment systems + continued access to major international currencies

This provides greater flexibility without making India’s external trade dependent on a single alternative currency.

Sohar Port: Oman Offers India a Strategic Gateway to Gulf Energy

Why in News?

Sohar Port in Oman has gained renewed strategic importance amid continuing disruptions and security concerns around the Strait of Hormuz. Oman has invited greater Indian investment in Sohar Port, highlighting its potential as a logistics and energy gateway connecting India with the Gulf and wider international markets.

The port’s location on the Gulf of Oman, outside the Strait of Hormuz, is particularly significant because it can provide an alternative maritime access point when movement through Hormuz faces disruption.

Where is Sohar Port?

Sohar Port is located in northern Oman, on the Gulf of Oman.

Important geographical location

Arabian Sea
↓
Gulf of Oman
↓
Sohar Port – Oman
↓
Located outside the Strait of Hormuz

The port is relatively close to important energy infrastructure in the UAE and eastern Saudi Arabia, making it strategically useful for energy transportation and logistics.

Why is Sohar Port Important?

  1. Alternative to the Strait of Hormuz

The Strait of Hormuz is one of the world’s most important maritime chokepoints.

It connects:

Persian Gulf → Strait of Hormuz → Gulf of Oman → Arabian Sea → Indian Ocean

A disruption in Hormuz can affect:

  • crude oil supplies;
  • LNG shipments;
  • petroleum products;
  • container shipping;
  • global energy prices.

Sohar’s location outside the Strait gives it strategic importance during periods of instability.

  1. Energy Security

Sohar is located close to important energy infrastructure in the region.

Recent developments have demonstrated this importance. Saudi Arabia has offered crude oil loadings to Asian buyers through ship-to-ship transfers off Sohar, following damage to its East-West oil pipeline amid regional attacks. This provides an example of how Oman can function as an alternative logistics platform during disruptions.

India imports a substantial share of its crude oil requirements, making secure maritime energy routes strategically important.

  1. Gateway for India–Gulf Trade

Sohar is not merely an oil port.

The Sohar Port and Freezone provides facilities connected with:

  • logistics;
  • petrochemicals;
  • metals;
  • manufacturing;
  • agribulk;
  • regional trade.

The port is being developed as a major industrial and logistics hub, creating opportunities for international companies and regional supply chains.

For India, this can support greater connectivity with:

India → Oman → GCC → East Africa

This is particularly relevant after the India–Oman CEPA entered into force in June 2026, which aims to expand bilateral trade and create stronger economic connectivity between South Asia, the Gulf and East Africa.

  1. Connectivity with the UAE

Another important development is the planned Oman–UAE railway connection.

Improved rail connectivity can link Sohar Port with the UAE’s transport network, strengthening:

  • cross-border freight movement;
  • supply chains;
  • port-to-inland connectivity;
  • GCC regional integration.

Thus, Sohar can potentially function as a multimodal logistics hub, combining maritime and land-based transportation.

Sohar vs Duqm vs Salalah

India has strategic and economic interests in several Omani ports.

Port

Major significance

Sohar

Gulf access, industrial/logistics hub, proximity to UAE and Saudi energy infrastructure

Duqm

Arabian Sea location, strategic maritime position, industrial and logistics hub

Salalah

Located near major Indian Ocean shipping routes; important transshipment and logistics hub

Important for UPSC

Do not confuse:

Sohar → Gulf of Oman, northern Oman

Duqm → Arabian Sea coast, central/eastern Oman

Salalah → southern Oman, near major Indian Ocean maritime routes

India has also obtained access to facilities at Duqm for military logistics and maintenance, making Duqm important in India’s wider maritime strategy.

Strategic Significance for India

  1. Energy security

Alternative logistics routes can help reduce vulnerability to disruptions in the Gulf.

  1. Maritime security

Oman occupies a strategically important position at the entrance to the Indian Ocean–Gulf maritime system.

  1. Trade diversification

Greater use of Omani ports can diversify India’s maritime trade routes and logistics partnerships.

  1. Strategic partnership with Oman

India and Oman have longstanding defence and maritime cooperation. Indian naval deployments and port visits in Oman contribute to cooperation in the Western Indian Ocean.

  1. Link with India’s wider maritime strategy

Sohar can be viewed alongside India’s engagement with:

  • Chabahar Port – Iran
  • Duqm – Oman
  • Salalah – Oman
  • Indian Ocean island states
  • Western Indian Ocean maritime routes

These partnerships support India’s broader objective of maintaining secure and diversified maritime connectivity.

Sohar Port and Chabahar Port

Feature

Sohar

Chabahar

Country

Oman

Iran

Water body

Gulf of Oman

Gulf of Oman

Major significance

Gulf access and logistics

Access to Afghanistan/Central Asia

Strategic value

Alternative Gulf logistics route

Bypass Pakistan for connectivity with Central Asia

India’s role

Investment/trade opportunities and maritime cooperation

India has an operational role

Wider connectivity

GCC and East Africa

INSTC and Central Asia

India’s involvement in Chabahar is particularly important because it provides an alternative route towards Afghanistan and Central Asia without relying on Pakistani territory.

Global Gender Gap Index 2026: India Retains 131st Position

Why in News?

The World Economic Forum (WEF) released the Global Gender Gap Report 2026 on 16 September 2026. India has retained its 131st position among 145 economies, with 64.5% of its overall gender gap closed. The global average stands at 69.2%.

The report is significant because 2026 marks the 20th edition of the Global Gender Gap Index, which has tracked gender parity since 2006. Globally, the gap is the narrowest recorded so far, but at the current pace, complete parity is estimated to remain 120 years away.

What is the Global Gender Gap Index?

The Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI) is published annually by the World Economic Forum.

It measures the relative gap between women and men, rather than the absolute level of development of women.

The index assesses four major dimensions:

  1. Economic Participation and Opportunity
  2. Educational Attainment
  3. Health and Survival
  4. Political Empowerment

A score of 100% represents complete parity between women and men for the indicators measured.

Important point

The index measures gender parity, not simply women’s welfare or development.

Therefore, a country can have a relatively high level of women’s development but still have a gender gap if outcomes for men remain significantly higher.

India's Performance in 2026

Indicator

India’s 2026 Score

Overall gender parity

64.5%

Economic Participation & Opportunity

41.2%

Educational Attainment

96.6%

Health & Survival

95.6%

Political Empowerment

24.5%

Overall rank

131 / 145

India’s overall score has improved by 4.3 percentage points since 2006, with much of the long-term improvement coming from educational attainment.

  1. Economic Participation and Opportunity

India’s score in this dimension is 41.2%.

It improved by 0.5 percentage points compared with the previous edition, but remains below India’s earlier best score of 44.6% recorded in 2013.

Some important indicators

  • Labour-force participation parity: 44.1%
  • Professional and technical workers: parity increased from 26.6% in 2006 to 49.9% in 2026.
  • Legislators, senior officials and managers: parity is 13.1%.

What does this indicate?

India has made progress in women’s education and entry into professional occupations, but significant gaps remain in:

Labour-force participation → leadership positions → income/economic opportunity

This is an important GS Paper III linkage because women’s participation in the economy affects:

  • labour supply;
  • household incomes;
  • productivity;
  • human capital;
  • inclusive economic growth.
  1. 2. Educational Attainment

India performs considerably better in this dimension, with 96.6% parity.

India maintains full parity in secondary and tertiary enrolment, while primary education is also close to parity. However, adult literacy parity remains lower at 82.5%.

Significance

India’s experience demonstrates an important development challenge:

Improved access to education ≠ automatic economic empowerment

Women may achieve near-parity in educational attainment while still facing barriers to:

  • employment;
  • wages;
  • career progression;
  • leadership;
  • workforce retention.
  1. 3. Health and Survival

India’s score in this dimension is 95.6%.

Although the score has improved, the report notes that the sex ratio at birth remains below its 2006 level.

UPSC linkage

This dimension connects gender equality with:

  • maternal and reproductive health;
  • nutrition;
  • life expectancy;
  • sex ratio;
  • discrimination against the girl child.
  1. Political Empowerment

India’s political empowerment score is 24.5%, and India ranks 67th globally on this sub-index.

The report measures women’s representation and participation in political decision-making.

India’s position

  • Parliamentary representation shows a gender gap of 16.1% closed.
  • Ministerial representation has improved from 3.5% in 2006 to 5.9% in 2026.
  • The ministerial indicator remains considerably below India’s earlier peak of 30% in 2019.

Important distinction

Political empowerment is not the same as political participation alone.

It includes women’s representation in positions where political decisions are made, including:

  • Parliament;
  • ministerial positions;
  • head-of-state/head-of-government positions.

Global Picture

The 2026 report covers 145 economies.

Globally:

  • 69.2% of the gender gap has been closed.
  • This is the highest level recorded in the current 145-economy cohort.
  • Among the 97 economies tracked consistently since 2006, parity has reached 69.4%.
  • No economy has achieved complete gender parity across all four dimensions.
  • At the current rate of progress, full global parity is estimated to take 120 years.

Global performance by dimension

Dimension

Global parity

Health & Survival

96.2%

Educational Attainment

96.9%

Economic Participation & Opportunity

61.7%

Political Empowerment

22.1%

The largest remaining gaps are therefore in economic participation and political empowerment.

Top and Bottom of the Index

Iceland retains the top position, with 93% of its gender gap closed.

It is followed by Finland and Norway. At the other end, Chad is ranked last, with Pakistan and Iran also among the bottom three.

For UPSC, remember that rankings can change every year, so focus on the methodology and dimensions rather than memorising only the ranking.

Why Does Gender Equality Matter for India?

  1. Economic growth

Greater female participation in the workforce can expand the effective labour pool and improve utilisation of human capital.

  1. Demographic dividend

India’s young population can provide a demographic advantage only if both men and women are able to participate meaningfully in education and economic activity.

  1. Social development

Women’s education and economic independence have wider implications for:

  • child nutrition;
  • health outcomes;
  • fertility decisions;
  • household welfare;
  • intergenerational human capital.
  1. Political representation

Greater representation can improve the diversity of perspectives incorporated into public decision-making, although the impact depends on institutional and social contexts.

Key Challenges for India

The report’s indicators point towards several areas requiring attention:

Education gains

↓

Transition from education to employment

↓

Higher female labour-force participation

↓

Equal economic opportunities

↓

Leadership and decision-making positions

The major challenge is therefore not simply getting girls into schools, but ensuring that educational gains translate into economic and political participation.

Important Government Initiatives

Some major initiatives relevant to gender equality include:

  • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
  • Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana
  • Mission Shakti
  • Stand-Up India
  • DAY-NRLM / Self-Help Groups
  • Maternity Benefit provisions
  • Women Reservation Act, 2023

These can be linked with different dimensions of the gender gap: education, health, financial inclusion, entrepreneurship and political representation.

Global Gender Gap Index vs Gender Inequality Index

Do not confuse these in Prelims.

Global Gender Gap Index

Gender Inequality Index

Published by World Economic Forum

Published by UNDP

Focuses on gender parity

Measures gender inequality

Four major dimensions

Reproductive health, empowerment and labour market

Compares women and men

Captures disadvantages faced by women

Expressed as gender parity score

Part of UNDP’s Human Development framework

 

Quick Revision

Remember:

  1. Publisher: World Economic Forum.
  2. First introduced:
  3. 2026 edition: 20th edition.
  4. India: 131st among 145 economies.
  5. India’s overall parity:5%.
  6. Global parity:2%.
  7. Four dimensions:
    • Economic Participation and Opportunity
    • Educational Attainment
    • Health and Survival
    • Political Empowerment
  8. India’s strongest dimension: Educational Attainment — 96.6%.
  9. India’s weakest dimension: Economic Participation and Opportunity — 41.2%.
  • Iceland: highest-ranked economy in 2026.
  • No economy: achieved complete gender parity in the 2026 edition.
  • Global parity is estimated to be 120 years away at the current pace.

 

Discover more from Primus Civil Services Academy

Subscribe to get the latest posts sent to your email.

Related Posts

Leave a Comment

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Scroll to Top

Discover more from Primus Civil Services Academy

Subscribe now to keep reading and get access to the full archive.

Continue reading